Syria and The Syrian civil war
Syria and The Syrian civil war
Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south and Israel to the southwest. Sony SVS13AA11L Battery
A country of fertile plains, high mountains and deserts, it is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups, including Kurds, Armenians, Assyrians, Turks, Christians, Druze, Alawite Shias and Arab Sunnis. The latter make up the majority of the population. Sony SVS131A11L Battery
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In English, the name "Syria" was formerly synonymous with the Levant (known in Arabic as al-Sham) while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus,
Sony PCG-41413L Batterythe oldest continuously inhabited city in the world,[6] was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The modern Syrian state was established after the First World War as a French mandate, and represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly Ottoman-ruled Arab Levant. It gained independence in April 1946, Sony SVS131B11L Battery
as a parliamentary republic. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a large number of military coups and coup attempts shook the country in the period 1949–1971. Between 1958 and 1961, Syria entered a brief union with Egypt, Sony SVS151A11L Battery
Sony PCG-41412L Battery which was terminated by a military coup. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, and its system of government is considered to be non-democratic.[ Sony SVS151B11L Battery
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7] Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000.[8]
Syria is a member of one International organization other than the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement; it is currently suspended from the Arab League[9] and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,[10] Sony PCG-4121DL Battery
Sony PCG-41411L Battery and self suspended from the Union for the Mediterranean.[11]
Since March 2011, Syria has been embroiled in civil war in the wake of uprisings (considered an extension of the Arab Spring, the mass movement of revolutions and protests in the Arab world) against Assad and the neo-Ba'athist government. Sony PCG-4121EL Battery
Sony PCG-41218L Battery An alternative government was formed by the opposition umbrella group, the Syrian National Coalition, in March 2012. Representatives of this government were subsequently invited to take up Syria's seat at the Arab League.[1Sony PCG-4121FL Battery
Sony PCG-41217L Battery2] The opposition coalition has been recognised as the "sole representative of the Syrian people" by several nations including the United States, United Kingdom and France.[13][14][15] Sony PCG-4121GL Battery
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The name
Syria is derived from the ancient Greek name for Syrians: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, which the Greeks applied without distinction to the Assyrians.[16][17] A number of modern scholars argued that the Greek word related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, ultimately derived from the Akkadian Aššur. Sony PCG-41211L Battery
Sony PCG-41215L Battery [18] Others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon.[19] However, the discovery of the Çineköy inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. Sony PCG-41212L Battery
The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between Arabia to the south and Asia Minor to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, Sony PCG-41213L Battery
Sony PCG-41214L Batteryand having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene.[20] sony PCG-4R2L battery
By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea, later renamed Palaestina in AD 135 (the region corresponding to modern day Israel, sony PCG-4Q4L battery
sony PCG-6Z4L battery the Palestinian Territories, and Jordan) in the extreme southwest, Phoenicia corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and Iraq.[21] sony PCG-4Q3L battery
History
Main article: History of Syria
Female figurine, Syria, 5000 BC. Ancient Orient Museum.
Since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture (known as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A) where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world.
sony PCG-6Z3L batteryThe following Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by rectangular houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps and burnt lime (Vaiselles blanches). sony PCG-6X1L battery
sony PCG-6Z2L battery Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age. Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth.
Around the excavated city of Ebla which is near present day Idlib in northern Syria, sony PCG-6X2L battery
sony PCG-6Z1L battery a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Anatolia and east to Iraq from 2500 to 2400 BC. Ebla appears to have been founded around 3000 BC, and gradually built its empire through trade with the cities of Sumer and Akkad, as well as with peoples to the northwest.[22]
sony PCG-6XBL batteryGifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with Egypt. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the oldest known written Semitic languages, designated as Paleo-Canaanite.[22] sony PCG-6X6L battery
However, more recent classifications of the Eblaite language have shown that it was an East Semitic language, closely related to the Akkadian language.[23] The Eblan civilization was likely conquered by Sargon of Akkad around 2260 BC; sony PCG-6X7L battery
sony PCG-6X8L battery the city was restored, as the nation of the Amorites, a few centuries later, and flourished through the early second millennium BC until conquered by the Hittites.[24]
Antiquity and Christian Syria
Main article: Syria (Roman province)
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Ancient city of Palmyra
During the second millennium BC, Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, and Arameans as part of the general disruptions and exchanges associated with the Sea Peoples. The Phoenicians settled along the coast of Northern Canaan (Lebanon). Sony SVS131C1DL Battery
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Egyptians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Hittites variously occupied the strategic ground of Syria during this period; the land between their various empires being marsh.[22] Sony SVS131E1DL Battery
Eventually, the Persians took Syria as part of their hegemony of Southwest Asia; this dominion was transferred to the Ancient Macedonians and Greeks after Alexander the Great's conquests and the Seleucid Empire. Sony SVS131G1DL Battery
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Pompey the Great captured Antioch in 64 BC, turning Syria into a Roman province. Thus control of this region passed to the Romans and then the Byzantines.[22] Sony SVS151C2DL Battery
The population of Syria during the heyday of the empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (AD).[25] Sony SVS151E1GL Battery
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The Roman Emperor Alexander Severus, who was emperor from 222 to 235, was Syrian. His cousin Elagabalus, who was emperor from 218 to 222, was also Syrian and his family held hereditary rights to the high priesthood of the sun god El-Gabal at Emesa (modern Homs) in Syria.
Sony PCG-91211L BatteryAnother Roman emperor who was a Syrian was Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus), emperor from 244 to 249.[25]
Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Saulus of Tarsus, better known as the Apostle Paul, was converted on the Road to Damascus and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, Sony PCG-61A11L Battery
from which he left on many of his missionary journeys. (Acts 9:1–43 )
Islamic Syria
Main articles: Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Ayyubid dynasty, Zengid dynasty, and Hamdanid dynasty Sony PCG-61A13L Battery
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Fresco from Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî, built in the early 7th century
By AD 640, Syria was conquered by the Rashidun army led by Khalid ibn al-Walid. In the mid-7th century, the Umayyad dynasty, Sony PCG-61A14L Battery
Sony PCG-71913L Battery then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. The country's power dramatically declined during later Umayyad rule; due mainly to the totalitarianism, corruption and the resulting revolutions by the oppressed. The Umayyad dynasty was then overthrown in 750 by the Abbasid dynasty, which moved the capital of empire to Baghdad. Sony PCG-71C11L Battery
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Arabic — made official under Umayyad rule — became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic in the Abbasid era. In 887, Sony PCG-71C12L Battery
Sony PCG-71911L Batterythe Egypt-based Tulunids annexed Syria from the Abbasids, and were later replaced by once the Egypt-based Ikhshidids and still later by the Hamdanids originating in Aleppo founded by Sayf al-Dawla.[26]
The 1299 Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar. The Mongols under Ghazan defeated the Mamluks.
Sections of the coastline of Syria were briefly held by Frankish overlords during the Crusades of the 12th century, and were known collectively as the Crusader state of the Principality of Antioch. The area was also threatened by Shi'a extremists known as Assassins (Hassassin). Sony PCG-61714L Battery
Sony PCG-71713L Battery Aleppo fell to the Mongols of Hulegu in January 1260, and Damascus in March, but then Hulegu needed to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute. Sony PCG-61813L Battery
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A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt and defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut in Galilee. The Mamluk leader, Baibars, made Damascus a provincial capital. When he died, power was taken by Qalawun. Sony PCG-61911L Battery
Sony PCG-61913L Battery In the meantime, an emir named Sunqur al-Ashqar had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280, and fled to northern Syria. Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols. Sony SVE141C11L Battery
Sony PCG-61317L Battery The Mongols of the Ilkhanate took the city, but Qalawun persuaded Al-Ashqar to join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281, in the Second Battle of Homs, which was won by the Mamluks.[27] Sony SVE141D11L Battery
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In 1400, Timur Lenk, invaded Syria, sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand.[28][2Sony SVE151E11L Battery
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Sony PCG-61315L Battery9] By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an overland trade route through Syria.
Ottoman Syria
Main article: Ottoman Syria
This section requires expansion. (December 2012)
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Syrian women, 1683
In 1516, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, conquering Syria, and incorporating it into its empire. The Ottoman system was not burdensome to Syrians because the Turks respected Arabic as the language of the Koran, and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus was made the major entrepot for Mecca, Sony SVE171C11L Battery
Sony PCG-61312L Battery and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the baraka (spiritual force or blessing) of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.[30] Sony SVE171E11L Battery
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Ottoman administration followed a unique system that lead to a peaceful coexistence for centuries. Each religious minority — Shia Muslim, Greek Orthodox, Maronite, Armenian, and Jewish—constituted a millet. The religious heads of each community administered all personal status law and performed certain civil functions as well.[30] Sony SVE171E12L Battery
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In the midst of World War I, two Allied diplomats (Frenchman François Georges-Picot and Briton Mark Sykes) secretly agreed on the post-war division of the Ottoman Empire into respective zones of influence in the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916. Sony PCG-61713L Battery
Sony PCG-61215L Battery Initially, the two territories were separated by a border that ran in an almost straight line from Jordan to Iran. However, the discovery of oil in the region of Mosul just before the end of the war led to yet another negotiation with France in 1918 to cede this region to 'Zone B', Sony PCG-91111L Battery
Sony PCG-61211L Battery or the British zone of influence.[citation needed] This border was later recognized internationally when Syria became a League of Nations mandate in 1920[31] and has not changed to this date. Sony PCG-91112L Battery
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French Mandate
Main article: French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon
The inauguration of President Hashim al-Atassi in 1936
In 1920, a short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria was established under Faisal I of the Hashemite family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the Battle of Maysalun. Sony PCG-71312L Battery
Sony PCG-71215L Battery French troops occupied Syria later that year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate.[32]
In 1925, Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt that broke out in the Druze Mountain and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French, notably the Battle of al-Kafr on 21 July 1925, Sony PCG-71311L Battery
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the Battle of al-Mazraa on 2–3 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, al-Musayfirah and Suwayda. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal, leading the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, Sony PCG-71217L Battery
Sony PCG-71212L Battery but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Syrian-French Treaty.
Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi was the first president to be elected under the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria.
Sony PCG-71211L BatteryHowever, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of Vichy France until the British and Free French occupied the country in the Syria-Lebanon campaign in July 1941. Sony PCG-71313L Battery
Sony PCG-71318L Battery Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.[33] Sony PCG-71315L Battery
Independence
Main articles: Syrian Republic (1930–1958), United Arab Republic, and 1963 Syrian coup d'état
Aleppo in 1961
Upheaval dominated Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s. In 1948, Syria was involved in the Arab-Israeli War, aligning with the other local Arab states attempting to prevent the establishment of the State of Israel.[3Sony PCG-71316L Battery
Sony PCG-71317L Battery4] Defeat in this war was one of several trigger factors for the March 1949 Syrian coup d'état by Col. Husni al-Za'im, described as the first military overthrow of the Arab World[34] since the start of the Second World War. Sony PCG-3B1L Battery
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Sony PCG-5T3L BatteryThis was soon followed by another overthrow, by Col. Sami al-Hinnawi, who was himself quickly deposed by Col. Adib Shishakli, all within the same year.[34]
Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether, but was himself overthrown in a 1954 coup and the parliamentary system was restored.[34Sony PCG-3B3L Battery
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Sony PCG-5T2L Battery] However, by this time, power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment.[34] The weakness of Parliamentary institutions and the mismanagement of the economy led to unrest and the influence of Nasserism and other ideologies.
Sony PCG-5T1L Battery There was fertile ground for various Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist, and socialist movements, which represented disaffected elements of society. Notably included were religious minorities, who demanded radical reform.[34] Sony PCG-3C2L Battery
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In November 1956, as a direct result of the Suez Crisis,[35] Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union. This gave a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for military equipment.[34] Turkey then became worried about this increase in the strength of Syrian military technology, Sony PCG-3D3L Battery
Sony PCG-5S2L Battery as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake İskenderun. Only heated debates in the United Nations lessened the threat of war.[36]
On 1 February 1958, Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Egypt's Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities.[ Sony PCG-3D4L Battery
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Sony PCG-5S1L Battery33] Meanwhile, a group of Syrian Ba'athist officers, alarmed by the party’s poor position and the increasing fragility of the union, decided to form a secret Military Committee; its initial members were Lieutenant-Colonel Muhammad Umran, Major Salah Jadid and Captain Hafez al-Assad. Sony PCG-3F1L Battery
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Sony PCG-5P4L BatteryWhen Syria seceded on 28 September 1961, the ensuing instability culminated in the 8 March 1963 coup. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. The new cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.[33][34] Sony PCG-3F3L Battery
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Ba'athist Syria
On 23 February 1966, the Military Committee carried out an intra-party overthrow, imprisoned President Amin Hafiz and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March.[34] Although Nureddin al-Atassi became the formal head of state, Salah Jadid was Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until 1970.[37] Sony PCG-3F4L Battery
Sony PCG-3J1L Battery The coup led to a split within the original pan-Arab Ba'ath Party: one Iraqi-led ba'ath movement (ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and one Syrian-led ba'ath movement was established. Sony PCG-3B1L Battery
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Conflict over the cultivation of disputed lands sparked into 7 April prewar aerial clashes between Israel and Syria.[38] After Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the June 1967 war, Syria joined the battle against Israel as well. Sony PCG-3G5L Battery
Sony PCG-5R2L Battery In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing the entire Golan Heights in under 48 hours.[39] The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.[40] Sony PCG-3H1L Battery
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Quneitra village, largely destroyed before the Israeli withdrawal in June 1974.
Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. Sony PCG-3H2L Battery
Sony PCG-5P2L BatteryThe 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the "Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.[41] The power struggle culminated in the November 1970 Corrective Movement, a bloodless military overthrow that installed Hafez al-Assad as the strongman of the government.[42] Sony PCG-3H3L Battery
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On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the Yom Kippur War against Israel. The Israel Defense Forces reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.[43]
In early 1976, Syria entered Lebanon, beginning the thirty-year Syrian military occupation. Over the following 15 years of civil war, Sony PCG-9Z1L Battery
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Sony PCG-8151L BatterySyria fought for control over Lebanon, and attempted to stop Israel from taking over in southern Lebanon, through extensive use of proxy militias. Syria then remained in Lebanon until 2005. Sony PCG-7142L Battery
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In the late 1970s, an Islamic uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, and civilians were also killed in retaliatory strike by security forces. Sony PCG-7151L Battery
Sony PCG-8131L BatteryThe uprising had reached its climax in the 1982 Hama massacre,[44] when some 10,000 - 40,000 people were killed by regular Syrian Army troops.
In a major shift in relations with both other Arab states and the Western world, Syria participated in the US-led Gulf War against Saddam Hussein. Sony PCG-7152L Battery
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Sony PCG-7185L BatterySyria participated in the multilateral Madrid Conference of 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.[45] Sony PCG-7154L Battery
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(For a clickable version of the map without shaded areas, see here)
Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad, was elected President in an election in which he ran unopposed.[3Sony PCG-7162L Battery
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3] His election saw the birth of the Damascus Spring and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001 the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.[46] Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.[8][47][48]
On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad.[49] Sony PCG-7172L Battery
Sony PCG-7184L Battery In March 2004, Syrian Kurds and Arabs clashed in the northeastern city of al-Qamishli. Signs of rioting were seen in the towns of Qameshli and Hassakeh.[50] In 2005, Syria ended its occupation of Lebanon.[5Sony PCG-7173L Battery
Sony PCG-7183L Battery1] On 6 September 2007, Israeli jet fighters carried out Operation Orchard against a suspected nuclear reactor under construction by North Korean technicians.[52]
The ongoing Syrian civil war was inspired by the Arab Spring Revolutions. It began in 2011 as a chain of peaceful protests, Sony PCG-7174L Battery
followed by a crackdown by the Syrian Army.[53] In July 2011, army defectors declared the formation of the Free Syrian Army and began forming fighting units. The opposition is dominated by Sunni Muslims, Sony PCG-7181L Battery
Sony PCG-7182L Batterywhereas the leading government figures are Alawites.[54] According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 100,000 people have been killed.[55][56][57] To escape the violence, over 1.7 million Syrian refugees have fled to neighboring countries of Jordan,[58] Iraq,[59] Lebanon, and Turkey.[60Sony PCG-21313L Battery
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][61] As the civil war nears its second year, there have been worries that the country could become fragmented and cease to function as a state.[62]
Geography
Burj Islam, a well-known beach just north of Latakia.
Syria lies between latitudes 32° and 38° N, and longitudes 35° and 43° E. It consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part of the country bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. Sony PCG-31311L Battery
The Northeast of the country "Al Jazira" and the South "Hawran" are important agricultural areas.[63] The Euphrates, Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. It is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "Cradle of civilization".[64]
The climate in Syria is dry and hot, Sony PCG-41112L Battery
Sony PCG-81314L Battery and winters are mild. Because of the country's elevation, snowfall does occasionally occur during winter.[63] Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are those of Suwaydiyah, Qaratshui, Rumayian, and Tayyem, near Dayr az–Zawr. Sony PCG-51111L Battery
Sony PCG-81313L BatteryThe fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940.[33] Sony PCG-51113L Battery
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Politics and government
The Syrian Parliament in the mid-20th century
Syria is formally a unitary republic. The constitution adopted in 2012 effectively transformed Syria into a semi-presidential republic due to the constitutional right for individuals to be elected which do not form part of the National Progressive Front.[6Sony PCG-51311L Battery
5] The President is Head of State and the Prime Minister is Head of Government.[66] The Peoples Council is the Syria's legislature responsible for passing laws, approving government appropriations and debating policy.[6Sony PCG-51312L Battery
Sony PCG-81311L Battery7] In the event of a vote of no confidence by a simple majority, the Prime Minister is required to tender the resignation of their government to the President.[68]
The executive branch consists of the president, two vice presidents, the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The constitution requires the president to be a Muslim[6Sony PCG-51411L Battery
Sony PCG-81214L Battery9] but does not make Islam the state religion.
The constitution gives the president the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and state of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, Sony PCG-51412L Battery
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Sony PCG-81114L Battery to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel.[70] According to the 2012 constitution, the president is elected by Syrian citizens in a direct election. Sony PCG-51513L Battery
Syria's legislative branch is the unicameral People's Council. Under the previous constitution, Syria did not hold multi-party elections for the legislature,[70] with two thirds of the seats automatically allocated to the ruling coalition.[7Sony PCG-61412L Battery
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1] On 7 May 2012, Syria held its first elections in which parties outside the ruling coalition could take part. Seven new political parties took part in the elections, of which Popular Front for Change and Liberation was the largest opposition party. The armed anti-government rebels, Sony PCG-81111L Battery
however, chose not to field candidates and called on their supporters to boycott the elections.
The President is the Secretary-General of the party, and the leader of the National Progressive Front governing coalition. Outside of the coalition are 14 illegal Kurdish political parties.[7Dell Latitude E4200 Battery
Syria's judicial branches include the Supreme Constitutional Court, the High Judicial Council, the Court of Cassation, Sony PCG-81112L Battery
Sony PCG-81113L Batteryand the State Security Courts. Islamic jurisprudence is a main source of legislation and Syria's judicial system has elements of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws. Syria has three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. Religious courts handle questions of personal and family law.[70] The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) was abolished by President Bashar al-Assad by legislative decree No. 53 on 21 April 2011.[73] Dell Latitude E4300 Battery
The Personal Status Law 59 of 1953 (amended by Law 34 of 1975) is essentially a codified sharia.[74] Article 3(2) of the 1973 constitution declares Islamic jurisprudence a main source of legislation. The Code of Personal Status is applied to Muslims by sharia courts.[75] Dell Latitude E5400 Battery
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Syrian National Coalition
Main article: National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces
Flag used by the Syrian National Coalition
As a result of the ongoing civil war, an alternative government was formed by the opposition umbrella group, the Syrian National Coalition, in March 2012. Representatives of this government were invited to take up Syria's seat at the Arab League on 28 March 2013.[12Dell Latitude E5420 Battery
Dell Latitude E6430 ATG Battery] The opposition coalition has been recognised as the "sole representative of the Syrian people" by several nations including the United States, United Kingdom and France.[13][14][15]
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Syria
Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo, October 2012
The situation for human rights in Syria has long been a significant concern among independent organizations such as Human Rights Watch, who in 2010 referred to the country's record as "among the worst in the world."[7Dell Latitude E5500 Battery
6] Freedom House ranked Syria "Not Free" in its annual Freedom in the World survey.[77]
The authorities are accused of arresting democracy and human rights activists, censoring websites, detaining bloggers, and imposing travel bans. Arbitrary detention, torture, and disappearances are widespread.[ Dell Latitude E6120 Battery
Dell Latitude E5430 Battery78] Although Syria's constitution guarantees gender equality, critics say that personal statutes laws and the penal code discriminate against women and girls. Moreover, it also grants leniency for so-called 'Honour killing'.[78Dell Latitude E6320 Battery
Dell Latitude E5420M Battery] As of 9 November 2011 during the uprising against President Bashar al-Assad, the United Nations reported that of the over 3500 total deaths, over 250 deaths were children as young as 2 years old, and that boys as young as 11 years old have been gang raped by security services officers.[79][8Dell Latitude E6400 Battery
Dell Latitude E5520 Battery0] People opposing President Assad's rule claim that more than 200, mostly civilians, were massacred and about 300 injured in Hama in shelling by the Government forces on 12 July 2012.[
In August 2013 the government was suspected of using chemical weapons against its civilians. US Secretary of State John Kerry said it was "undeniable" that chemical weapons had been used in the country and that President Bashar al-Assad's forces had committed a "moral obscenity" against his own people. "Make no mistake," 81] Dell Latitude E6410 Battery
Dell Latitude E6230 Battery Kerry said. "President Obama believes there must be accountability for those who would use the world's most heinous weapon against the world's most vulnerable people. Nothing today is more serious, and nothing is receiving more serious scrutiny".[82] Dell Latitude E6420 ATG Battery
The Emergency Law, effectively suspending most constitutional protections, was in effect from 1963 until 21 April 2011.[73] It was justified by the government in the light of the continuing war with Israel over the Golan Heights. Dell Latitude E6500 Battery
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Military
Syrian soldier wearing a Soviet-made Model ShMS nuclear-biological-chemical warfare mask aiming a Chinese Type-56 assault rifle
Main article: Military of Syria
The President of Syria is commander in chief of the Syrian armed forces, comprising some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve in the military upon reaching the age of 18.[83Dell Latitude E6510 Battery
Dell Latitude E6400 XFR Battery] The obligatory military service period is being decreased over time, in 2005 from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to year and a half.[84] About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country after three decades.[83] Dell Latitude E6520 Battery
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The breakup of the Soviet Union — long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces — may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. Sony VGP-BPL8 Battery
In the early 1990s, Scud-C missiles with a 500-kilometer range were procured from North Korea, and Scud-D, with a range of up to 700 kilometers, is allegedly being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and Iran, according to Zisser.[85] Sony VGP-BPL10 Battery
Syria received significant financial aid from Persian Gulf Arab states as a result of its participation in the Persian Gulf War, with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending.
Foreign relations Sony VGP-BPL13 Battery
Main article: Foreign relations of Syria
This article or section lacks a single coherent topic. Please help improve this article by rewording sentences or removing irrelevant information. Specific concerns may appear on the talk page. (September 2011)
Diplomatic missions of Syria
Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and securing the return of the Golan Heights, are the primary goals of President Bashar al-Assad's foreign policy. At many points in its history, Syria has seen virulent tension with its geographically cultural neighbors, such as Turkey, Israel, Sony VGP-BPL21 Battery
Sony VGP-BPS21 Battery Iraq, and Lebanon. Syria enjoyed an improvement in relations with several of the states in its region in the 21st century, prior to the Arab Spring and the Syrian civil war.
Since the ongoing civil war of 2011, and associated killings and human rights abuses, Syria has been increasingly isolated from the countries in the region, Sony VGP-BPS8 Battery
Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery and the wider international community. Diplomatic relations have been severed with several countries including: Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Germany, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, United States, Belgium, Spain, and the Gulf States.[86] Sony VGP-BPS10 Battery
From the Arab league, Syria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with Yemen, Lebanon, Sudan, and Iraq. Syria's violence against civilians has also seen it suspended from the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 2012. Syria continues to foster good relations with her traditional allies, Iran, Sony VGP-BPS12/Q Battery
Sony VGP-BPS15 BatteryChina, Venezuela and Russia, who are among the few countries which have supported the Syrian government in its conflict with the Syrian opposition.
Syria considers the Hatay Province of Turkey as part of its own territory.[87] Sony VGP-BPS13A Battery
Israel unilaterally annexed the Golan Heights in 1981, although the Syrian government continues to demand the return of this territory. Sony VGP-BPS13B/B Battery
The Syrian occupation of Lebanon began in 1976 as a result of the civil war and ended in April 2006 in response to domestic and international pressure after the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister, Rafik Hariri. Sony VGP-BPS13/B Battery
The Telecommunications in Syria are overseen by the Ministry of Communications and Technology.[88] In addition, Syrian Telecom plays an integral role in the distribution of government internet access.[8Sony VGP-BPS13B/S Battery
Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery9] The Syrian Electronic Army serves as a pro-government military faction in cyberspace and has been long considered an enemy of the hacktivist group Anonymous.[90] Due to internet censorship laws, 13,000 internet activists have been arrested between March 2011 and August 2012.[91] Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q Battery
Economy
Main article: Economy of Syria
Syria Export Treemap
Syria is classified by the World Bank as a "lower middle income country."[92] Syria remains dependent on the oil and agriculture sectors.[93] The oil sector provides about 40% of export earnings.[93] The agriculture sector contributes to about 20% of GDP and 20% of employment. Oil reserves are expected to decrease in the coming years and Syria has already become a net oil importer.[9Sony VGP-BPS13/Q Battery
Sony VGP-BSP13/S Battery3] Since the civil war began, the economy shrunk by 35%, and the Syrian pound has fallen to one-sixth of its prewar value.[94] The government increasingly relies on credit from Iran, Russia and China.[94] Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery
The economy is highly regulated by the government, which has increased subsidies and tightened trade controls to assuage protesters and protect foreign currency reserves.[95] Long-run economic constraints include foreign trade barriers, Sony VGP-BPS13A/B Battery
declining oil production, high unemployment, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.[95] The UNDP announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.[33]
Syria's main exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Sony VGP-BPS13B/B Battery
Sony VGP-BPS13/Q BatteryEarnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.[33]
Syria’s share in global exports has eroded gradually since 2001.[96] The real per capita GDP growth was just 2.5% per year in the 2000–2008 period.[96Sony VGP-BPS13/B Battery
] Unemployment is high at above 10%. Poverty rates have increased from 11% in 2004 to 12.3% in 2007.[96]
Political instability poses a significant threat to future economic development.[97] Foreign investment is constrained by violence, government restrictions, economic sanctions, and international isolation. Sony VGP-BPS13B/S Battery
Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q BatterySyria’s economy also remains hobbled by state bureaucracy, falling oil production, rising budget deficits, and inflation.[97] Sony VGP-BPS21 Battery
Prior to the civil war in 2011, the government hoped to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture.
Sony VGP-BPS21A/B BatteryThe government began to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but those reforms were slow and ad hoc, and have been completely reversed since the outbreak of conflict in 2011.[98] Sony VGP-BPS21A Battery
As of 2012, due to the ongoing Syrian civil war, the value of Syria's overall exports has been slashed by two thirds, from the figure of $12 billion USD in 2010 to only $4 billion USD in 2012.[99] Syria's GDP declined by over 3% in 2011,[100] and is expected to further decline by 20% in 2012.[101] Sony VGP-BPS21B Battery
As of 2012, Syria's oil and tourism industries in particular have been devastated, with US$5 billion lost to the ongoing conflict of the civil war.[99] Reconstruction needed due to the ongoing civil war will cost as much as $10 billion USD.[9Sony VGP-BPS21/S Battery
9] Sanctions have sapped the government's finance. US and European Union bans on oil imports, which went into effect in 2012, are estimated to cost Syria about $400 million a month.[102] Sony SVS13A1S9E battery
Revenues from tourism have dropped dramatically, with hotel occupancy rates falling from 90% before the war to less than 15% in May 2012.[103] Around 40% of all employees in the tourism sector have lost their jobs since the beginning of the war.[103]
Petroleum industry
Oil refinery in Homs
Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Deir ez-Zor in eastern Syria. Syria's rate of oil production has decreased dramatically from a peak close to 600,000 barrels per day (95,000 m3/d) (bpd) in 1995 down to less than 140,000 bbl/d (22,000 m3/d) in 2012.[104] Sony SVS1312J3E battery
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Syria exported roughly 200,000 bbl/d (32,000 m3/d) in 2005, and oil still accounts for a majority of the country's export income. Syria also produces 22 million cubic meters of gas per day, with estimated reserves around 8.5 trillion cubic feet (240 km3). Sony SVS1312S9E battery
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Sony VPCSB4M9E batteryWhile the government has begun to work with international energy companies in the hopes of eventually becoming a gas exporter, all gas currently produced is consumed domestically.[33]
Prior to the uprising, more than 90% of Syrian oil exports were to EU countries, with the remainder going to Turkey.[103] Oil and gas revenues constituted around 20% of total GDP and 25% of total government revenue.[103] Sony SVS1313S9E battery
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Transport
Main article: Transport in Syria
Syria has three international airports (Damascus, Aleppo and Lattakia), which serve as hubs for Syrian Air and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers. Sony SVS1512X9E battery
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The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by Chemins de Fer Syriens (the Syrian railway company), which links up with Turkish State Railways (the Turkish counterpart). For a relatively under developed country Syria's railway infrastructure is well maintained with many express services and modern trains.[105] Sony SVS1511S3R battery
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Demographics
Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density in Syria is about 99 per km² (258 per square mile). Sony VPCSA3T9E battery
Sony VPCSB3X9E batteryAccording to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers number approximately 1,852,300. The vast majority of this population was from Iraq (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from the former Palestine (543,400) and Somalia (5,200) also lived in the country.[107] Sony VPCSB1X9E battery
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Ethnic groups
Bedu children in Aleppo
Damascus, traditional clothing
Syrians are an overall indigenous Levantine people, closely related to their immediate neighbours, like Lebanese people, Palestinians, and Jordanians.[108][109] Syrian Arabs, together with some 400,000 UNRWA Palestinian Arabs make up over 90% of the population.[ Sony VPCSB2C5021B battery
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95] In addition, approximately 1,300,000 Iraqi refugees were estimated to live in Syria in 2007.[107] As of 1987, approximately 100,000 Circassians lived in Syria.[110]
Syria also hosts non-Arab ethnic minorities. The largest of these groups, Kurds, constitutes about 9% of the population, or approximately 2 million people.[111] Sony VPCSB2L1E battery
Sony VPCSB3T9E battery Most Kurds reside in the northeastern corner of Syria and most speak the Kurmanji variant of the Kurdish language. The majority of Syrian Turkmen live in Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia and number around 500,000-1,000,000.[112] Sony VPCSB2M9E battery
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The Assyrians/Syriacs number around 877,000 and mainly live in the north and northeast (Homs, Aleppo, Qamishli, Hasakah), many of whom still retains several Neo-Aramaic dialects as spoken languages.[1Sony VPCSB3M9E battery
Sony VPCSB3N9E battery13] Their numbers have been boosted by many Iraqi refugees since the Iraq War.[114] Armenians number approximately 190,000. Syria holds the 7th largest Armenian population in the world. Sony VPCSE battery
The largest concentration of Syrian diaspora outside the Arab world is in Brazil, which has millions of people of Arab ancestry.[115] The majority of Arab Argentines are from either Lebanese or Syrian background.[116] Sony VPCSE1E1E battery
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Sunni account for 59-60% of the population, while 13% are Shia (Alawite, Twelvers, and Ismailis combined),[117] 10% Christian[117] (the majority Antiochian Orthodox, the rest include Greek Catholic, Assyrian Church of the East, Armenian Orthodox, Protestants and other denominations), and 3% Druze.[117] Sony VPCSE1V9E battery
Sony VPCSA4W9E battery Druze number around 500,000, and concentrate mainly in the southern area of Jabal al-Druze.[118]
President Bashar al-Assad's family is Alawite and Alawites dominate the government of Syria and hold key military positions.[ Sony VPCSE1Z9E battery
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19]
Christians (2.5 million), a sizable number of which are found among Syria's population of Palestinian refugees, are divided into several groups. Chalcedonian Antiochian Orthodox make up 35,7% of the Christian population; the Catholics (Melkite, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Catholic, Maronite, Sony VPCSE2L9E battery
Chaldean Catholic and Latin) make up 26,2%; the Armenian Apostolic Church 10,9%, the Syrian Orthodox make up 22,4%; Assyrian Church of the East and several smaller Christian denominations account the remainder. Many Christian monasteries also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a high socio-economic class.[120] Sony VPCSE2M9E battery
Languages
Arabic is the official language. Several modern Arabic dialects are used in everyday life, most notably Levantine in the west and Mesopotamian in the northeast. Kurdish (in its Kurmanji form) is widely spoken in the Kurdish regions of Syria. Armenian and Turkish (South Azeri dialect) are spoken among the Armenian and Turkmen minorities. Sony VPCSE2S1E battery
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Before the advent of Arabic, Aramaic was the lingua franca of the region and is still spoken among Assyrians, and Classical Syriac is still used as the liturgical language of various Syriac Christian denominations. Most remarkably, Sony VPCSB1A9E battery
Sony VPCSA3X9E batteryWestern Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in the village of Ma`loula as well as two neighboring villages, 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Damascus. Many educated Syrians also speak English and French. Sony VPCSB1B9E battery
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Largest cities
The Literature of Syria has contributed to Arabic literature and has a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom immigrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the nahda or Arab literary and cultural revival of the 19th century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, Sony VPCSB1S1E battery
Sony VPCSA3N9E battery Adonis, Muhammad Maghout, Haidar Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani and Zakariyya Tamer.
Ba'ath Party rule, since the 1966 coup, has brought about renewed censorship. In this context, the genre of the historical novel, spearheaded by Nabil Sulayman, Fawwaz Haddad, Khyri al-Dhahabi and Nihad Siris, is sometimes used as a means of expressing dissent, critiquing the present through a depiction of the past. Sony VPCSB1S1E battery
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Sony VPCSA3M9E batterySyrian folk narrative, as a subgenre of historical fiction, is imbued with magical realism, and is also used as a means of veiled criticism of the present. Salim Barakat, a Syrian émigré living in Sweden, is one of the leading figures of the genre. Sony SVS13A1V9E battery
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Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses science fiction and futuristic utopiae (Nuhad Sharif, Talib Umran), which may also serve as media of dissent.
Popular culture
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Cinema advert in Aleppo
The Syrian music scene, in particular that of Damascus, has long been among the Arab world's most important, especially in the field of classical Arab music. Syria has produced several pan-Arab stars, including Asmahan, Farid al-Atrash and singer Lena Chamamyan. The city of Aleppo is known for its muwashshah, a form of Andalous sung poetry popularized by Sabri Moudallal, as well as for popular stars like Sabah Fakhri. Sony SVS1311F3E battery
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Television was first introduced to Syria in 1960, when Syria and Egypt (which adopted television that same year) were part of the United Arab Republic. It broadcast in black and white until 1976. Syrian soap operas have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.[123] Sony SVS1311K9E battery
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Nearly all of Syria’s media outlets are state owned, and the Ba'ath Party controls nearly all newspapers.[124] The authorities operate several intelligence agencies[125] among them Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya, employing a large number of operatives.[126]
Sports
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The most popular sports in Syria are football, basketball, swimming, and tennis. Damascus was home to the fifth and seventh Pan Arab Games. Many popular football teams are based in Damascus, Aleppo, Sony SVS1311N9E battery
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Homs, Latakia, etc.
The Abbasiyyin Stadium in Damascus is home to the Syrian national football team. The team enjoyed some success, having qualified for four Asian Cup competitions. The team's first international was on 20 November 1949, losing to Turkey 7–0. The team was ranked 138th in the world by FIFA as of May 2013. Sony SVS1311S9E battery
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Cuisine
Main article: Syrian cuisine
Fattoush, an example of Syrian cuisine
Linked to the region of Syria where a specific dish has originated, Syrian cuisine is rich and varied in its ingredients. Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Southwest Asian dishes. Sony SVS1511Q9E battery
Sony vgp-bpsc24 batterySome Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking. Dishes like shish kebab, stuffed zucchini, yabra' (stuffed grape leaves, the word yapra' derıves from the Turkish word 'yaprak' meaning leaf). Sony SVS1511S2C battery
The main dishes that form Syrian cuisine are kibbeh, hummus, tabbouleh, fattoush, labneh, shawarma, mujaddara, shanklish, pastırma, sujuk and baklava. Baklava is made of filo pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in honey. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as meze, before the main course. za'atar, Sony SVS1511T9E battery
Sony vgp-bps24 batteryminced beef, and cheese manakish are popular hors d'œuvres. The Arabic flatbread khubz is always eaten together with meze.
Drinks in Syria vary depending on the time of the day and the occasion. Arabic coffee, also known as Turkish coffee is the most well-known hot drink usually prepared in the morning at breakfast or in the evening. It is usually served for guests or after food. Arak, Sony SVS1511V9E battery
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Sony VPCSE2E1E batteryan alcoholic drink, is also a well-known beverage served mostly on special occasions. More examples of Syrian beverages include Ayran, Jallab, White coffee, and a locally manufactured beer called Al Shark.[127] Sony VPCSE1X9E battery
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Education
Main article: Education in Syria
Jawdat al-Hashimi School in Damascus
Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 12. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. Sony SVS13AA11M battery
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The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrollment at post-secondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 90.7% for males and 82.2% for females.[128][129] Sony SVS151A11M battery
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Since 1967, all schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision by the Ba'ath Party.[130]
There are 6 state universities in Syria,[131] and 15 private universities.[132] The top two state universities are University of Damascus (180,000 students),[13Sony SVS1311P9EB battery
Sony PCG-31113M battery3] and University of Aleppo.[134] The top private universities in Syria are: Syrian Private University, Arab International University, University of Kalamoon and International University for Science and Technology. There are also many higher institutes in Syria like the Higher Institute of Business Administration which offer undergraduate and graduate programs in business.[135] Sony SVS1511L3ES battery
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According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are Damascus University (3540th worldwide), the University of Aleppo (7176th) and Tishreen University (7968th).[136] Sony SVS1511N3ES battery
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The Syrian civil war (Arabic: الأزمة السورية "Syrian crisis"),[55][56][57] also called the Syrian uprising,[58] is an ongoing armed conflict in Syria between forces loyal to the Ba'ath government and those seeking to oust it. The conflict began on 15 March 2011, with popular demonstrations that grew nationwide by April 2011. Sony SVS1511V9EB battery
Sony PCG-41218M battery These demonstrations were part of the wider Middle Eastern protest movement known as the Arab Spring. Protesters demanded the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad, whose family has held the presidency in Syria since 1971, as well as the end of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party rule since 1963. Sony SVS1511V9ES battery
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In April 2011, the Syrian Army was deployed to quell the uprising, and soldiers fired on demonstrators across the country.[59][60] After months of military sieges,[61] the protests evolved into an armed rebellion. Opposition forces, mainly composed of defected soldiers and civilian volunteers, Sony VPCSA3Q9E battery
Sony PCG-41216M battery remain without central leadership.[62] The conflict is asymmetrical, with clashes taking place in many towns and cities across the country.[63] Late 2011 marked growing influence of the Islamist group Jabhat al-Nusra within the opposition forces, and in 2013 Hezbollah entered the war in support of the Syrian army.[64][ Sony VPCSB4S9E battery
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Sony PCG-41215M battery65] The Syrian government is further upheld by military support from Russia and Iran, while Qatar and Saudi Arabia transfer weapons to the rebels.[66] By July 2013, the Syrian government controls approximately 30–40 percent of the country's territory and 60 percent of the Syrian population.[67] Sony VPCSE2V9E battery
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Sony PCG-41212M battery The insurgency controls large swaths of territory in the country's north and east.
The Arab League, United States, European Union, and other countries condemned the use of violence against the protesters. The Arab League suspended Syria's membership because of the government's response to the crisis, but granted the Syrian National Coalition, a coalition of Syrian political opposition groups, Syria's seat on 6 March 2013.[68] Sony PCG-4121DM battery
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In June 2013, the death toll surpassed 100,000 according to the United Nations.[40] According to various opposition activist groups, between 80,350 and 106,425 people have been killed,[28][37][42][69] of which about half were civilians,[70] but also including 65,100 armed combatants consisting of both the Syrian Army and rebel forces,[28] Sony PCG-41211M battery
Sony PCG-41214M battery up to 1,000 opposition protesters[36] and 1,000 government officials.[29] By October 2012, up to 28,000 people had been reported missing, including civilians forcibly abducted by government troops or security forces.[71Sony PCG-41213M battery] According to the UN, about 4 million Syrians have been displaced within the country and 1.8 million have fled to other countries.[72][73]
In addition, tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned and there are reports of widespread torture and terror in state prisons.[ Sony PCG-41218M battery
Sony PCG-41414M battery74] International organizations have accused both government and opposition forces of severe human rights violations.[75] UN investigations have concluded that the government's abuses are the greatest in gravity, frequency and scale.[76] Sony SVE1511A1EW battery
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Main articles: Modern history of Syria and Al-Assad family
The Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch government came to power in 1964 after a successful coup d'état. In 1966, another coup overthrew the traditional leaders of the party, Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar.[ Sony SVE1511F1E battery
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Sony SVE1511W1ESI battery77] General Hafez al-Assad, the Minister of Defense, seized power in a "corrective revolution" in November 1970, becoming prime minister. In March 1971, Assad declared himself President, a position he would hold until his death in 2000. Sony SVE1511L1E battery
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Sony SVE1511V1EW batterySince then, the secular Syrian Regional Branch has remained the dominant political authority in a virtual single-party state in Syria, and Syrian citizens may only approve the President by referendum and – until the government-controlled multi-party 2012 parliamentary election – could not vote in multi-party elections for the legislature.[78] Sony SVE1511P1E battery
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Bashar al-Assad, the President of Syria and Asma al-Assad, his wife - who is a British-born and British-educated Sunni Muslim,[79] initially inspired hopes for democratic and state reforms; a "Damascus Spring" of intense social and political debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001.[8Sony SVE1511W1E battery
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0] The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or salons, where groups of like-minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. Political activists such as Riad Seif, Haitham al-Maleh, Sony SVE1512B1E battery
Sony SVE1511Q1EB battery Kamal al-Labwani, Riyad al-Turk and Aref Dalila were important in mobilizing the movement.[81] The most famous of the forums were the Riad Seif Forum and the Jamal al-Atassi Forum. The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and for a campaign of civil disobedience.[82] Sony SVE1512C6E battery
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Demographics
Turkmen-Sunni, Circassian-Sunni, Assyrian-Christian and others (1%)
The Assad family comes from the minority Alawite religious group, an offshoot of Shi'ite Islam that comprises an estimated 12 percent of the total Syrian population.[84] It has maintained tight control on Syria's security services, Sony SVE1512J1E battery
Sony SVE14A1S1EB batterygenerating resentment among some Sunni Muslims,[85] a sect that makes up about three-quarters of Syria's population. Ethnic minority Syrian Kurds have also protested and complained over ethnic discrimination and denial of their cultural and language rights.[8Sony SVE1512K1E battery
Sony SVE1511A1EB battery6][87] The Syrian government allegedly has relied mostly on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising. Assad's younger brother Maher al-Assad commands the army's elite Fourth Armored Division, and his brother-in-law, Assef Shawkat, Sony SVE1512M1E battery
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Sony SVE1713S1E battery was the deputy minister of defense until the latter's assassination in the 18 July 2012 Damascus bombing.
Socioeconomics
Discontent against the government was strongest in Syria's poorer areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.[88] Sony SVE1513C5E battery
Sony SVE1713C5E battery These included cities with high poverty rates, such as Daraa and Homs, rural areas hit hard by a drought in early 2011, and the poorer districts of large cities. Socioeconomic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the service sector, Sony SVE1513D1E battery
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Sony SVE1712Z1E battery these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.[8Sony SVE1513E9E battery
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Sony SVE1711X1E battery8] By 2011, Syria was facing a deterioration in the national standard of living and steep rises in the prices of commodities.[89] The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates.[90] Sony SVE1513H1E battery
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Syria
The state of human rights in Syria has long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations.[ Sony SVE1513Q1E battery
Sony SVE1711R1E battery91] The country was under emergency rule from 1963 until 2011, effectively granting security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.[92] Bashar al-Assad is widely regarded to have been unsuccessful in implementing democratic change, Sony SVE1511W1ESI battery
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with a 2010 report from Human Rights Watch stating that he had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power, although some minor aspects had seen improvement.[93] All political parties other than the Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch have remained banned, Sony SVE14A3C5E battery
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thereby leaving Syria a one-party state without free elections.[92]
Rights of free expression, association and assembly were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising.[94] The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government, who are oftentimes indefinitely detained and tortured in poor prison conditions.[94] Sony SVE15 battery
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Women and ethnic minorities have faced discrimination in the public sector.[94] Thousands of Syrian Kurds were denied citizenship in 1962 and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners".[95] Several riots prompted increased tension in Syria's Kurdish areas since 2004.[96][97] Occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces have since continued. Sony SVE1511A1E battery
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Arab Spring
Main article: Arab Spring
In December 2010, mass anti-government protests began in Tunisia and later spread across the Arab world, including Syria. By February 2011, revolutions occurred in Tunisia and Egypt, while Libya began to experience its own civil war. Numerous other Arab countries also faced protests, Sony SVE1512X9E battery
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with some attempting to calm the masses by making concessions and governmental changes.
Uprising and civil war
See also: Timeline of the Syrian civil war and Cities and towns during the Syrian civil war
Beginnings of protests
The Syrian Independence flag used by the Syrian opposition
Before the uprising in Syria began in mid-March 2011, protests were relatively modest, considering the wave of unrest that was spreading across the Arab world. Syria remained what Al Jazeera described as a "kingdom of silence", Sony SVE1513A4E battery
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due to strict security measures, a relatively popular president, religious diversity, and concerns over the prospects of insurgency like that seen in neighboring Iraq.[98]
Civil uprising (March–July 2011)
Main article: Civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war
Demonstration in Homs against Assad.
The conflict initially began as a civil uprising, evolved from initially minor protests, beginning as early as January 2011, as a response to the regional Arab Spring, government corruption, and human rights abuses. Sony SVE1513B4E battery
Sony VPCCB2 battery Large-scale unrest began on 15 March in the southern city of Daraa, sometimes called the "Cradle of the Revolution", and later spread nation-wide.[99] The government responded to the protests with large arrests, torture of prisoners, police brutality, censorship of events, and some concessions. Sony SVE1513M1E battery
Sony VPCCA3 battery However, the protests continued to grow. In late-April, Assad began launching large-scale military operations against restive towns and cities. The operations involved the use of tanks, infantry carriers, and artillery, leading to a large number of civilian deaths.[100]
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When the uprising began in mid-March, many analysts believed that the Syrian government would remain intact, partly due to strict loyalty tests and the fact that most top-position officials belonged to the same sect as Assad, Sony SVE1513V1E battery
Sony VPCCA2S0E battery the Alawites. However, in response to the use of lethal force against unarmed protesters, many soldiers and low-level officers began to desert from the Syrian Army. Many soldiers who refused to open fire against civilians were summarily executed by the army. Sony SVE1713Z1E battery
Sony VPCCA2 batteryThe first defections occurred during the April Daraa operation.[83] The number of defections increased during the following months, as army deserters began to group together to form fighting units. Sony SVE17 battery
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Sony VPCCA1S1E batteryAs the uprising progressed, opposition fighters became more well-equipped and organized, and senior military officers and government officials began to defect as well to the opposition.[101] Some analysts stated that these defections were signs of Assad's weakening inner circle.[102] Sony VPCEA1C5E Battery
The first instance of armed insurrection occurred on 4 June 2011 in Jisr ash-Shugur, a city near the Turkish border in Idlib province. Angry protesters set fire to a building where security forces had fired on a funeral demonstration. Eight security officers died in the fire as demonstrators took control of a police station, Sony VPCEA1S1R Battery
Sony VPCEA3S1R Batteryseizing weapons. Clashes between protesters and security forces continued in the following days. About 120 Syrian troops were killed in an ambush by insurgents.[83]
In June and July 2011, protests continued as government forces expanded operations, repeatedly firing at protesters, Sony VPCEA2C5E Battery
employing tanks against demonstrations, and conducting arrests. The towns of Rastan and Talbiseh, and Maarat al-Numaan were besieged in early June.[103] On 30 June, large protests erupted against the Assad government in Aleppo, Syria's largest city.[104] On 3 July, Syrian tanks were deployed to Hama, Sony VPCEA2S1E Battery
Sony VPCEA3S1R Battery two days after the city witnessed the largest demonstration against Bashar al-Assad.[105] On 31 July, a nationwide crackdown resulted in the death of almost 140 people and hundreds of injuries.[106] Some besieged cities and towns were described as having famine-like conditions.[107] Sony VPCEA2M1R Battery
Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centers and outlying regions, and continued to attack protests. On 14 August, the Siege of Latakia continued as the Syrian Navy became involved in the military crackdown for the first time. Gunboats fired heavy machine guns at waterfront districts in Latakia, Sony VPCEA2S1R Battery
Sony VPCEA3S1R Batteryas ground troops and security agents backed by armor stormed several neighborhoods.[108] The Eid ul-Fitr celebrations, started in near the end of August, were muted after security forces fired on large demonstrations in Homs, Daraa, and the suburbs of Damascus.[109] Sony VPCEA3A4E Battery
During the first six months of the uprising, the inhabitants of Syria's two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, remained largely uninvolved in the anti-government protests.[110] The two cities' central squares have seen organized rallies of hundreds of thousands in support of president Assad and his government.[111] Sony VPCEA3B4E Battery
Armed insurgency (July–October 2011)