Syria and The Syrian civil war 2
An FSA fighter engaged in a firefight in Aleppo
On 29 July, a group of defected officers announced the formation of the Free Syrian Army (FSA), an umbrella group which would later represent the main opposition army. Composed of defected Syrian Armed Forces personnel and civilian volunteers, Sony VPCEA3C5E Battery
Sony VPCEA4S1R Battery the rebel army seeks to remove Bashar al-Assad and his government from power. The establishment of the group formally marked the beginning of armed resistance to the Assad government.[10Sony VPCEA3D4E Battery
Sony VPCEA4M1R Battery0] The FSA would grow in size, to about 20,000 by December, and to an estimated 40,000 by June 2012.[112] Nevertheless, the group remained without centralized leadership until December 2012. Sony VPCEA3L1E Battery
Sony VPCEA3Z1R Battery The FSA, along with other insurgent groups, rely mostly on light weapons, including assault rifles and rocket-propelled grenades.
A FSA fighter walking among rubble in Aleppo, October 2012
From September 2011, organized units of Syrian rebels began an active insurgency campaign in multiple areas of Syria. A first major confrontation between the FSA and the Syrian armed forces occurred in Rastan. Sony VPCEA3M1E Battery
Sony VPCEA3S1R Battery From 27 September to 1 October, Syrian government forces, backed by tanks and helicopters, led a major offensive on the town of Al-Rastan in Homs province, in order to drive out army defectors.[1Sony VPCEA3M1R Battery
Sony VPCEA3S1E Battery13] The 2011 battle of Rastan between the government forces and the FSA was the longest and most intense action up until that time. After a week of fighting, the FSA was forced to retreat from Rastan.[105Sony SVE171A11M battery
] To avoid government forces, the leader of the FSA, Col. Riad Asaad, retreated to the Turkish side of Syrian-Turkish border.[1Sony SVE151C11M battery
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Sony PCG-41315M battery14] Many of the rebels fled to the nearby city of Homs.[83]
By October, the FSA started to receive support from Turkey, who allowed the rebel army to operate its command and headquarters from the country's southern Hatay province close to the Syrian border, and its field command from inside Syria.[11Sony SVE1711K1EW battery
Sony PCG-41314M battery5] The FSA would often launch attacks into Syria's northern towns and cities, while using the Turkish side of the border as a safe zone and supply route. A year after its formation, the FSA would gain control over many towns close to the Turkish border.
In October 2011, clashes between government and defected army units were being reported fairly regularly. During the first week of the month, Sony SVE1711V1EB battery
Sony PCG-41311M batterysustained clashes were reported in Jabal al-Zawiya in the mountainous regions of Idlib province. Syrian rebels captured most of Idlib city as well.[116] In mid-October, other clashes in Idlib province include the city of Binnish and the town of Hass in the province near the mountain range of Jabal al-Zawiya.[ Sony SVE1711X1EB battery
Sony VPCCA2S1E battery117][118] In late October, other clashes occurred in the northwestern town of Maarrat al-Nu'man in the province between government forces and defected soldiers at a roadblock on the edge of the town, and near the Turkish border, where 10 security agents and a deserter were killed in a bus ambush.[1Sony SVE1511G1EW battery
Sony VPCCA3S1E battery19] It was not clear if the defectors linked to these incidents were connected to the FSA.[120]
Escalation (November 2011–March 2012)
See also: Siege of Homs, 2012 Homs offensive, and Battle of Idlib (2012)
Syrian army checkpoint in Douma, January 2012.
In early November, clashes between the FSA and security forces in Homs escalated as the siege continued. After six days of bombardment, the Syrian Army stormed the city on 8 November, leading to heavy street fighting in several neighborhoods. Sony SVE1511G1ESI battery
Sony VPCCB3M1E battery Resistance in Homs was significantly greater than that seen in other towns and cities, and some in opposition have referred to the city as the "Capital of the Revolution". Unlike events in Deraa and Hama, operations in Homs have thus far failed to quell the unrest.[83] Sony SVE1511G1EB battery
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November and December 2011 saw increasing rebel attacks, as opposition forces grew in number. In the two months, the FSA launched deadly attacks on an air force intelligence complex in the Damascus suburb of Harasta, Sony SVE1511S1EW battery
Sony SVE1511J1EW battery the Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch youth headquarters in Idlib province, Syrian Regional Branch offices in Damascus, an airbase in Homs province, and an intelligence building in Idlib.[121] Sony SVE1511S1ESI battery
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Sony SVE1511H1ESI battery On 15 December, opposition fighters ambushed checkpoints and military bases around Daraa, killing 27 soldiers, in one of the largest attacks yet on security forces.[122] The opposition suffered a major setback on 19 December, when a failed defection in Idlib province lead to 72 defectors killed.[123]
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riot police in central Damascus, January 16, 2012
In January 2012, Assad began using large-scale artillery operations against the insurgency, which led to the destruction of many civilian homes due to indiscriminate shelling.[100][124] By this time, daily protests had dwindled, eclipsed by the spread of armed conflict.[12Sony PCG-4R2M battery
5] January saw intensified clashes around the suburbs of Damascus, with the Syrian Army use of tanks and artillery becoming common. Fighting in Zabadani began on 7 January when the Syrian Army stormed the town in an attempt to rout out FSA presence. Sony PCG-4R2M battery
Sony VPCZ12Z9E/B batteryAfter the first phase of the battle ended with a ceasefire on 18 January, leaving the FSA in control of the town,[126] the FSA launched an offensive into nearby Douma. Fighting in the town lasted from 21 to 30 January, before the rebels were forced to retreat as result of a government counteroffensive. Although, the Syrian Army managed to retake most of the suburbs, sporadic fighting continued.[1Sony PCG-6Z4M battery
Sony VPCZ12X9E/B battery27] Fighting erupted in Rastan again on 29 January, when dozens of soldiers manning the town's checkpoints defected and began opening fire on troops loyal to the government. Opposition forces gained complete control of the town and surrounding suburbs on 5 February.[128] Sony PCG-6121M battery
On 3 February, the Syrian army launched a major offensive to retake rebel-held neighborhoods. In early March, after weeks of artillery bombardments and heavy street fighting, the Syrian army eventually captured the district of Baba Amr, a major rebel stronghold. Sony PCG-6124M battery
Sony VPCZ12V9E battery The Syrian Army also captured the district of Karm al-Zeitoun by 9 March, where activists claimed that government forces killed 47 women and children. By the end of March, the Syrian army retook control of half a dozen districts, leaving them in control of 70 percent of the city.[129] Sony VPCZ13M9E/B battery
By 14 March, Syrian troops successfully ousted insurgents from the city of Idlib, after days of fighting.[130] By early April, the estimated death toll of the conflict, according to activists, has reached 10,000.[131]
Ceasefire attempt (April–May 2012)
Main article: Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria
A Syrian soldier manning a checkpoint near Damascus
Kofi Annan's peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, Syrian armed forces attacked a number of towns and villages, and summarily executed scores of people.[1Sony VPCZ13Z9E/X battery
Sony VPCZ12C7E/B battery32]:11 Incommunicado detention, including of children, also continued.[133] In April, Assad began employing attack helicopters against rebel forces.[100]
On 12 April, both sides, the Syrian Government and rebels of the FSA entered a UN mediated ceasefire period. It was a failure, with infractions of the ceasefire by both sides resulting in several dozen casualties. Sony VPCZ21Q9E battery
Sony VPCZ11Z9E/B batteryAcknowledging its failure, Annan called for Iran to be "part of the solution", though the country has been excluded from the Friends of Syria initiative.[134] The peace plan practically collapsed by early June and the UN mission was withdrawn from Syria. Annan officially resigned on 2 August 2012. Sony VPCZ23K9E battery
Renewed fighting (June–July 2012)
Following the Houla massacre of 25 May 2012 and the consequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the ceasefire practically collapsed towards, as the FSA began nationwide offensives against government troops. On 1 June, Sony VGP-BPL20 battery
Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery the President Assad vowed to crush the anti-government uprising, after the FSA announced that it was resuming "defensive operations".[135]
On 5 June, fighting broke out in Haffa and nearby villages in the coastal province of Latakia. Rebels fought with government forces backed by helicopter gunships in the heaviest clashes in the province since the revolt began. Sony VGP-BPS20/B battery
Sony VPCZ11X9E battery Syrian forces seized the territory from rebels following eight days of fighting and shelling.[136] On 6 June 78 civilians were killed in the Al-Qubeir massacre. According to activist sources, government forces started by shelling the village before the Shabiha militia moved in.[13Sony VGP-BPS20/S battery
Sony VPCZ11 battery7] The UN observers headed to Al-Qubeir in the hope of investigating the alleged massacre, but they were met with a roadblock and small arms fire before reaching the village and were forced to retreat.[138] Sony VGP-BPL14 battery
After aerial bombardment by the Syrian government of rebel-held areas of Azaz in Aleppo governorate
At the same time, the conflict began moving into the two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, which the government claimed were dominated by a pro-Assad silent majority. In both cities, peaceful protests Sony VGP-BPL14/S battery
Sony VGN-Z51XG/B battery– including a general strike by Damascus shopkeepers a small strike in Aleppo were interpreted by some as indicating that the historical alliance between the government and the business establishment in the large cities had become weak.[139]
On 22 June, Sony VGP-BPS14 battery
Sony VGN-Z51WG/B battery a Turkish F-4 fighter jet was shot down by Syrian government forces, killing both pilots. Tensions between Syria and Turkey dramatically escalated following this incident, as both sides disputed whether the jet had been flying in Syrian or international airspace when it was shot down. Despite Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's vows to retaliate harshly against Assad's government, Sony VGP-BPS14/B battery
Sony VGN-Z51MG/B batteryno such intervention materialised. Bashar al-Assad publicly apologised for the incident, and relations between the two countries cooled.
By 10 July, rebel forces have captured most of the city of Al-Qusayr, in Homs province, after weeks of fighting.[140] By mid-July, rebels have captured the town of Saraqeb, in Idlib province.[141] Sony VGN-Z11MN/B battery
Battles of Damascus and Aleppo (July–October 2012)
Main articles: Battle of Damascus (2012), Battle of Aleppo (2012–13), and Rif Dimashq offensive (August–October 2012)
Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo, October 2012.
By mid-July 2012, fighting had spread across the country. Acknowledging this, the International Committee of the Red Cross declared the conflict a civil war.[142] Fighting in Damascus intensified, with a major rebel push to take the city.[143] On 18 July, Syrian Defense Minister Dawoud Rajiha, former defense minister Hasan Turkmani, and the president's brother-in-law General Assef Shawkat were killed by a bomb attack in Damascus.[144] The Syrian intelligence chief Hisham Ikhtiyar, who was injured in the same explosion, later succumbed to his wounds.[145] Both the FSA and Liwa al-Islam claimed responsibility for the assassination.[146]
In late July, government forces managed to break the rebel offensive on Damascus by pushing out most of the opposition fighters, Sony VGN-Z21 battery
Sony VGN-Z31XN/B battery although fighting still continued in the outskirts. After this, the focus shifted to the battle for control of Aleppo.[147] On 25 July, multiple sources reported that the Assad government was using fighter jets to attack rebel positions in Aleppo and Damascus,[148] and on 1 August, Sony VGN-Z21WN/B battery
Sony VGN-Z41WD/B batteryUN observers in Syria witnessed government fighter jets firing on rebels in Aleppo.[149] In early August, the FSA offensive to capture Aleppo was repelled, and the Syrian Army recaptured Salaheddin district, an important rebel stronghold in Aleppo. In August, the government began using fixed-wing warplanes against the rebels.[100][124]
On 19 July, Sony VGN-Z21XN battery
Sony VGP-BPS12/Q batteryOn the same day, Iraqi officials reported that the FSA had gained control of all four border checkpoints between Syria and Iraq, increasing concerns for the safety of Iraqis trying to escape the violence in Syria.[1Sony VGN-Z31 battery
Sony VGP-BPS12 battery50] On 19 September, rebel forces seized a border crossing between Syria and Turkey in Ar-Raqqah province. It was speculated that this crossing, along with several other border crossings into Turkey and one into Iraq, could provide opposition forces with strategic and logistical advantages, allowing them greater ease in transporting supplies into the country.[151]
In late September, the FSA moved its command headquarters from southern Turkey into rebel-controlled areas of northern Syria.[152] On 9 October, rebel forces seized control of Maarat al-Numan, a strategic town in Idlib province on the highway linking Damascus with Aleppo.[153] By 18 October, the FSA had captured Douma, Sony VGN-Z31VN/X battery
Sony VGN-Z battery the biggest suburb of Damascus.[154] Lakhdar Brahimi arranged for a ceasefire during Eid al-Adha in late October, but it quickly collapsed as both rebels and the Syrian Army resumed large-scale operations.[155] Sony VGN-Z31WN/B battery
Rebel offensives (November 2012–April 2013)
Further information: Battle of Aleppo (2012–13), Rif Dimashq offensive (November 2012–February 2013), 2012 Hama offensive, Damascus offensive (2013), Battle of Shadadeh, and Battle of Raqqa Sony VGN-Z31ZN/B battery
A Syrian rebel sniper in Khan al-Assal, Aleppo province.
After Brahimi ceasefire agreement officially ended on 30 October, the Syrian military expanded its aerial bombing campaign in Damascus. A bombing of the Damascus district of Jobar was the first instance of a fighter jet being used in Damascus airspace to attack targets in the city. Sony PCG-6Z2M battery
Sony PCG-71318M batteryThe following day, Gen. Abdullah Mahmud al-Khalidi, a Syrian Air Force commander who was described by the state media as one of the country's top aviation experts, was assassinated by opposition gunmen in the Damascus district of Rukn al-Din.[156]
In early November 2012, Sony PCG-6X4M battery
Sony PCG-71316M battery rebels made significant gains in northern Syria. The rebel capture of Saraqib in Idlib province, which lies on the strategic M5 highway, further isolated Aleppo from government-controlled areas of the country.[ Sony SVE1511A1EW battery
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157] Due to insufficient anti-aircraft weapons, rebel units attempted to nullify the government's air power by destroying landed helicopters and aircraft on air bases.[158] On 3 November, rebels launched an attack on the Taftanaz air base, a core base for the Syrian military's helicopter and bombing operations.[159Sony SVE1511K1E battery
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]
On 18 November, rebels took control of Base 46 in the Aleppo Governorate, one of the Syrian Army's largest bases in northern Syria, after weeks of intense fighting with government forces. Defected General Mohammed Ahmed al-Faj, Sony SVE1511L1E battery
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who commanded the assault, hailed the capture of Base 46 as "one of our biggest victories since the start of the revolution", claiming nearly 300 Syrian troops had been killed and 60 had been captured, with rebels seizing large amounts of heavy weapons, including tanks.[160] Sony SVE1511M1E battery
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On 22 November, rebels captured the Mayadeen military base in the country's eastern Deir ez Zor province. Activists said this gave the rebels control of a large amount of territory east of the base, stretching to the Iraqi border.[16Sony SVE1511P1E battery
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Sony SVE1712Q1E battery1] On 29 November, at approximately 10:26 UTC, the Syrian Internet and phone service was shut off for a two-day period.[162] There was much speculation that the Syrian government was responsible for the outage; however, state sources denied responsibility and blamed the blackout on fiber optic lines near Damascus becoming exposed and damaged.[16
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In mid-December 2012, American officials said that the Syrian military had resorted to firing Scud ballistic missiles at rebel fighters inside Syria. Reportedly, six Scud missiles were fired at the Sheikh Suleiman base north of Aleppo, which rebel forces had occupied. It is unclear whether the Scuds hit the intended target.[163] Sony SVE1511V1E battery
Sony SVE1711F1E battery4] The government denied this claim.[165] Later that month, a further Scud attack took place near Marea, a town in a rebel-held area north of Aleppo near the Turkish border. The missile appeared to have missed its target.[16Sony SVE1511W1E battery
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Sony SVE1711R1E battery4] That same month, the British Daily Telegraph reported that the FSA had now penetrated into Latakia province's Mediterranean coast through Turkey, and that the Syrian government's forces were unable to repel the FSA invasion thus far.[166] Sony SVE1512C6E battery
In late December, rebel forces pushed further into Damascus, taking control of the adjoining Yarmouk and Palestine refugee camps, pushing out fighters from the pro-government Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command with the help of other factions.[1
Sony SVE1513Q1E battery67] Rebel forces launched an offensive against army positions in Hama province, later claiming to have forced army regulars to evacuate several towns and bases,[168] and stating that "three-quarters of western rural Hama is under our control."[ Sony SVE1512J1E battery
Sony SVE1513H1E battery169] Rebels also captured the northern town of Harem near the Turkish border in Idlib province, after weeks of heavy fighting.[170]
On 11 January, Islamist groups, including Jabhat al-Nusra, took full control of the strategic Taftanaz air base in the northern Idlib province, Sony SVE1512K1E battery
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after weeks of fighting. The air base, one of the largest in northern Syria, was often used by the military to carry out helicopter raids and deliver supplies. The rebels claimed to have seized helicopters, tanks and multiple rocket launchers, Sony SVE1513C4E battery
Sony SVE1513E9E batteryand other military equipment, before being forced to withdraw by a government counter-attack. The leader of the Al-Nusra brigade said the amount of weapons they took was a "game changer".[171] Sony SVE1513C5E battery
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On 11 February, Islamist rebels captured the town of Al-Thawrah in Raqqa province and the nearby Tabqa Dam, Syria's largest dam and a key source of hydroelectricity.[172][173] The next day, rebel forces took control of Jarrah air base, located 60 kilometres (37 mi) east of Aleppo. Sony SVE1511A1EB battery
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The base had been used to launch bombing raids in Aleppo province, and had served as an important supply line for the Assad government.[174] On 14 February, fighters from Jabhat al-Nusra took control of Shadadeh, a town located in Hasakah province near the Iraqi border.[175]
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On 20 February, a car bomb exploded in the Mazraa neighborhood of Damascus near the Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch headquarters, killing at least 53 people and injuring more than 235.[176] None of the organized groups on either side in the conflict claimed responsibility.[177]
On 21 February, Sony SVE14A1S1EB battery
Sony SVE1513V1E batterythe FSA in Quasar began shelling Hezbollah positions in Lebanon. Prior to this, Hezbollah militants had been shelling villages near Quasar from within Lebanon. A 48-hour ultimatum was issued by a FSA commander on 20 February, warning the militant group to stop the attacks or face retaliation.[178] Sony SVE14A1S1EP battery
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On 2 March, intense clashes between rebels and the Syrian Army erupted in the north-central city of Raqqa, with many reportedly killed on both sides.[179] On the same day, Syrian troops regained several villages along the highway near Aleppo.[1Sony SVE1511R9ESI battery
Sony SVE1513B4E battery80] By 3 March, rebels had overrun Raqqa's central prison, allowing them to free hundreds of prisoners, according to the SOHR.[181] The SOHR also claimed that rebel fighters were now in control of most of an Aleppo police academy in Khan al-Asal,
Sony SVE1513B1E battery and that over 200 rebels and government troops had been killed fighting for control of it.[182]
On 4 March, rebel forces launched an offensive to capture Raqqa outright. By 6 March, the rebels had captured the entire city, effectively making Raqqa the first provincial capital to be lost by the Assad government. Sony SVE1511V1EW battery
Sony SVE1513A4E batteryResidents of Raqqa celebrated by reportedly tearing down a huge poster of Assad, and toppling a bronze statue of his late father Hafez Assad in the centre of the city. The rebels also seized two top government officials.[183] Sony SVE1511W1ESI battery
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On 18 March, the Syrian Air Force attacked rebel positions in Lebanon for the first time. The attack occurred at the Wadi al-Khayl Valley area, near the border town of Arsal.[184]
On 21 March, a suspected suicide bombing in the Iman Mosque in Mazraa district killed as many as 41 people, including the high profile Pro Assad Sunni cleric, Sony SVE14A1S1E battery
Sony SVE1511R9E battery Sheikh Mohammed al-Buti.[185]
On 23 March, several rebel groups seized the 38th division air defense base in southern Daraa province near a strategic highway linking Damascus to Jordan.[186Sony SVE14A3C5E battery
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Sony SVE1511A1E battery] On the next day, rebels captured a 25 km strip of land near the Jordanian border, which included the towns of Muzrib, Abdin, and the al-Rai military checkpoint.[187]
On 25 March, rebels launched one of their heaviest bombardments of Central Damascus since the revolt began, with mortars reportedly hitting Umayyad Square, Sony VPCCA1C5E battery
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Sony VPCEA4S1E Battery where Baath Party headquarters, Air Force Intelligence and state television are also located. The attack was launched when rebel forces advanced into the Kafr Souseh district of Damascus.[188] Sony VPCCA2 battery
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On 26 March, near the Syrian town of al-Qusayr, rebel commander Khaled al Hamad, who commands the Al Farooq al-Mustakilla Brigade and is also known by his nom de guerre Abu Sakkar, ate the heart and liver of a dead soldier and said "I swear to God, you soldiers of Bashar, you dogs, Sony VPCCA2Z0E battery
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Sony VPCEA4S1R Batterywe will eat from your hearts and livers! O heroes of Bab Amr, you slaughter the Alawites and take out their hearts to eat them!" in an apparent attempt to increase sectarianism.[189][1Sony VPCCB2 battery
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Sony VPCEA4M1R Battery90] Video of the event emerged two months later and resulted in considerable outrage, especially from Human Rights Watch which classified the incident as a war crime. According to the BBC, it was one of the most gruesome videos to emerge from the conflict up-to-date.[191] Sony VPCCB2M1E battery
On 29 March, rebels captured the strategic town of Da'el after days of fierce fighting. The town is located in Daraa Province, along the strategic highway connecting Damascus to Jordan.[192]
On 3 April, rebels captured a military base near the city of Daraa.[193] Sony VPCCB2S1E battery
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Government and Hezbollah offensives (April–June 2013)
Further information: Al-Qusayr offensive and Battle of al-Qusayr (2013)
On 17 April, government forces breached a six-month rebel blockade in Wadi al-Deif, near Idlib. Heavy fighting has been reported around the town of Babuleen after government troops outflanked weakened rebel positions with troops now attempting to secure control of a main highway leading to Aleppo. Sony VPCEA1C5E Battery
Sony VPCEA3S1E Battery The break in the siege also allowed government forces resupply two major military bases in the region which had been relying on sporadic airdrops.[194]
On 18 April, the FSA took control of Al-Dab'a Air Base near the city of al-Qusayr.[195] The base had no aircraft and was being used primarily to garrison ground troops. Meanwhile, the Syrian Army took control over the town of Abel. Sony VPCEA1S1R Battery
Sony VPCEA3M1R Battery The SOHR director described the Army takeover of the town by saying that it will hamper rebel movements between al-Qusayr and Homs city. According to him, the capture of the airport would have relieved the pressure on the rebels in the area, but their loss of Abel made the situation more complicated.[196][1Sony VPCEA1Z1E Battery
Sony VPCEA3M1E Battery97] The same day, rebels also reportedly assassinated Ali Ballan, who was head of public relations at the Ministry of Social Affairs and a member of Syria's relief agency, in a restaurant at Mazzeh district in Damascus.[1Sony VPCEA2C5E Battery
Sony VPCEA3L1E Battery98] On 21 April, government forces captured the town of Jdaidet al-Fadl, near Damascus.[199][200]
In April, government and Hezbollah forces launched an offensive to capture rebel-held areas near al-Qusayr. On 21 April, pro-Assad forces captured the towns of Burhaniya, Saqraja and al-Radwaniya near the Lebanese border.[201][20Sony VPCEA2M1R Battery
Sony VPCEA3C5E Battery2] By this point, eight villages had fallen to the government offensive in the area.[203]
On 24 April, after five weeks of fighting, government troops seized control of the town of Otaiba, east of Damascus. The town had been under rebel control for the previous eight months, serving as the main arms supply route from Jordan.[ Sony VPCEA2S1E Battery
Sony VPCEA3C4E Battery204] Meanwhile in the north of the country, rebels took control of a key position on the edge of the strategic Mennagh Military airbase, on the outskirts of Aleppo. This allowed them to enter the airbase after months of besieging it.[205] Sony VPCEA2S1R Battery
On 2 May, government forces captured the town of Qaysa which lies to the east of Damascus in a steady push north from the city's airport. Troops also retook the Wadi al-Sayeh central district of Homs, driving a wedge between two rebel strongholds.[2Sony VPCCB4X1E battery
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06] SOHR reported a massacre of over 100 people in the coastal town of Al Bayda, Baniyas, when the Syrian army stormed the town. However, this could not be independently verified due to movement restrictions on the ground.[207Sony SVS13A1S9E battery
Sony SVS13A1X9E battery] Yet the multiple video images that residents said they had recorded in Bayda and Ras al-Nabeh — particularly of small children, were so shocking that even some government supporters rejected Syrian television’s official version of events, that the army had simply "crushed a number of terrorists."[208Sony SVS1312J3E battery
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On 3 May, the Syrian army backed by the Shabiha reportedly committed a massacre of civilians near the city of Baniyas. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said that at least 50 people – and possibly as many as 100 – were killed. Witnesses said the dead were killed with knives or blunt objects and that dozens of villagers were still missing.[209] Sony SVS1312S9E battery
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On 8 May, government forces captured the strategic town of Khirbet Ghazaleh, situated along the highway to the Jordanian border. Over 1,000 rebel fighters withdrew from the town due to the lack of reinforcements and ammunition. Sony SVS1313S9E battery
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Sony VPCSB3X9E batteryThe loss of the town also resulted in the reopening of the government supply-route to the contested city of Daraa. The rebels continued to withdraw from other towns and decided not to face the Army's advance along the highway.[210] On 11 May, the rebels managed to cut a newly build desert road used as an Army supply route between central Syria and Aleppo's airport.[2Sony SVS1512X9E battery
Sony VPCSB3T9E battery11] On 12 May, government forces took complete control of Khirbet Ghazaleh and secured the highway near the town.[212]
By mid-May, due to the recent Army gains in retaking modest, but strategically important, locations, military analysts pointed out that the government will have a major advantage in any future peace talks with the opposition and the West. Sony SVS13 battery
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Sony VPCSB3S9E batteryPro-government, rebel and independent analysts credited the government advances to the major restructuring of their forces, which they filled with thousands of militia irregulars trained at least in part by Hezbollah and Iranian advisers in counter-insurgency operations.[ Sony VPCSA battery
Sony VPCSB3N9E battery213] The government's success was also credited to the shift by the Army from conducting counter-insurgency operations to holding on to strategic areas and not trying to recapture the whole country and crush the rebellion.[214]
On 13 May, Sony VPCSA3T9E battery
Sony VPCSB3M9E battery government forces captured the towns of Western Dumayna, Haidariyeh and Esh al-Warwar allowing them to block supplies to the rebels in al-Qusayr.[215][216]
On 16 May, rebels also claimed they recaptured the town of Qaysa, Rif Damascus, after launching a unified counter-offensive.[217] On 17 May, Sony VPCSB1X9E battery
Sony VPCSB3L9E battery rebels captured four villages in Eastern Hama, including the Alawite town of Tulaysiah. The villages were abandoned by its residents days before the rebels arrived.[218]
On 19 May, government forces captured the rebel-held town of Halfaya in Hama Province.[219] Sony VPCSB1Z9E battery
Sony VPCSB2M9E batteryThe Syrian army also launched its offensive against the rebel-held town of Qusayr after taking control of surrounding villages and countryside. A military source reported the Army entered Qusayr, capturing the city center and the municipality building.[220] One opposition activist denied this,[ Sony VPCSB2C5021B battery
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Sony VPCSB2L1E battery221] but another confirmed it and stated the Army was in control of 60 percent of the city.[222] An al Jazeera reporter in Beirut also said that it seemed that the Syrian army had control of most of the town.[223] During the day's fighting, Hezbollah commander Fadi al-Jazar was killed.[224] Sony VPCSE battery
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An anonymous opposition source told the Associated Press that the attack was launched from the east and the south and that Hezbollah fighters took control of the town hall in a few hours and that by the end of the day, Sony VPCSE1E1E battery
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Sony VPCSA3Z9E batteryrebels units were pushed out of most of Qusayr. He added that the fighting was now concentred in the northern part of the city.[225] The attack appeared to surprise the rebels, who expected the army to push by the north on several rebels controlled villages before attacking the city. Sony VPCSE1Z9E battery
Sony VPCSA3X9E batteryThe turning point of the offensive was reached when Hezbollah fighters took control of the Al Tal area overlooking Qusayr. Several rebels fighters accused some commanders from fleeing the Al tal area at the last minute.[2Sony VPCSE2J9E battery
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Sony VPCSA3S9E battery26] Meanwhile SOHR reported that the Syrian army was at the area by the western neighborhood of al-Quseir in order to lay siege on the city itself.[227]
On 24 May, rebels captured a military base near the town of Nairab.[228]
By 29 May, Sony VPCSE2M9E battery
Sony VPCSA3M9E batterygovernment forces captured the al-Dabaa air base, north of al-Qusayr.[229]
On 1 and 2 June, after heavy fighting, the Syrian Army recaptured three of the Alawite villages that had been previously captured by the rebels in Eastern Hama province, after rebel forces retreated from the area.[230][231] Sony VPCSE2S1E battery
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On 5 June, rebel forces withdrew from al-Qusayr, and the Syrian military and its allies took full control of the town.[232] The following day, government forces captured the nearby village of Dabaa.
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Za'atri camp for Syrian refugees in Jordan
On 6 June, rebels attacked and temporarily captured the Quneitra border crossing which links the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights with the rest of Syria. However, the same day, government forces counter-attacked with tanks and armoured personnel carriers, recapturing the crossing.[233][234] Sony VPCSB1A9E battery
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On 7 June, Syrian troops backed by Hezbollah captured two villages north of al-Qusayr: Salhiyeh and Masoudiyeh.[235] The next day, they captured the village of Buwaydah, the last rebel-held village in the al-Qusayr region.[236] Sony VPCSB battery
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Between 7 and 14 June, Army troops, government militiamen, and reportedly Hezbollah fighters, launched operations in the province of Aleppo. Over a one-week period, government forces had advanced both in Aleppo city and the countryside around the city, pushing back the rebels. However, on 14 June, Sony SVS13A1Y9E battery
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according to an opposition activist, the tide had started reversing, after rebels managed to halt an armoured reinforcement column from Aleppo city for two government-held Shiite villages northwest of the city. As of 16 June, the rebels had been holding back the column for two days.
Sony SVE151C11M batteryRebels claimed of being able to destroy one tank and kill 20 government soldiers northwest of the town of Maaret al-Arteek. Before the column was stopped, government forces had captured the high ground at Maaret al-Arteek, threatening rebel positions. Government forces did also manage to make some advances in the southern part of Aleppo province, capturing the village of Ain-Assan village.[237Sony SVS1311F3E battery
Sony SVE171A11M battery][238] During the fighting in Aleppo city itself, on 13 June, government forces managed to temporarily advance into the rebel-held Sakhour district from two directions, but were soon repelled.[239] Some described it as just simply another skirmish or possibly a probing attack and not a full assault.[240] Sony SVS1311G4E battery
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On 10 June, Shia pro-government fighters from the village of Hatla, east of Deir al-Zour, attacked a nearby rebel position, killing four rebels.[241] The next day, in retaliation for the attack, thousands of rebels attacked and captured the village, killing 60 residents, fighters and civilians, according to SOHR.[2Sony SVS1311N9E battery
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Sony SVS15 battery42] 10 rebel fighters were killed during the attack.[241]
At dawn on 13 June, rebels seized an Army position on the northern edge of the town of Morek, which is located on the strategic north-south highway,[243] in fighting that killed six soldiers and two rebels. Later in the day, Sony SVS1311S9E battery
Sony VPCSD1S1C batterythe Army shelled the base and sent reinforcements in an attempt to recapture the post.[244][245]
On 14 June, the Al Nusra front captured a military barracks near Idlib city, after three days of fighting.[246]
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On 15 June, the Syrian Army captured the Damascus suburb of Ahmadiyeh near the city's airport. Rebels said fighting began after rebels entered the town to use it as a position to launch mortars on the Damascus airport. They added that fighting was ongoing.[247][248] Sony SVS1313P9E battery
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On 22 June, the Syrian Army captured the rebel stronghold town of Talkalakh.[249][250] Four days later, the Army captured the town of Al-Qariatayn, also in Homs province.[251]
Continued fighting (July 2013–present)
Further information: 2013 Syrian Kurdish–Islamist conflict
Sony SVS1511Q9E battery
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Military situation in Syria (as of 28 June 2013).
On 28 June, rebel forces captured a major military checkpoint in the city of Daraa.[252]
On 12 July FSA reported that one of its commanders, Kamal Hamami, had been killed at the hands of Islamists a day before. The rebels declared that the assassination, perpetrated by the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant, was tantamount to a declaration of war.[253] Sony SVS1511S2C battery
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On 17 July, FSA forces had reportedly taken control of most of the southern city of Nawa after seizing up to 40 army posts stationed in the city.[254]
On 18 July, PYD forces secured control of the northern town of Ras al-Ain, after days of fighting with Al-Nusra Front.[255] Sony SVS1511T9E battery
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On 22 July, FSA fighters had reportedly seized control of the Aleppo suburb of Khan Al-Assal, west of Aleppo city. The town was the last government stronghold in the western portion of Aleppo province, and the was also located on a route linking Aleppo with the rest of the province .[256]
On 25 July, Sony SVS1511V9E battery
Sony SVS1511X9E battery the Syrian army secured the town of al-Sukhnah, after expelling the Al-Nusra Front fighters.[257] On 27 July, after weeks of fighting and bombardment in Homs, the Syrian Army captured the historic Khalid ibn al-Walid Mosque,[258] and two days later, captured the district of Khaldiyeh.[259Sony SVE1711K1EW battery
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On 4 August, around 10 rebel brigades backed by heavy weaponry launched a large-scale offensive on the government stronghold of Latakia Province. Rebels had reportedly seized half a dozen villages in the mountainous area, Sony SVE1711X1EB battery
Sony SVE1511J1EW battery taking advantage of the rugged terrain and had captured about 400 Alawite villagers and pro-government militiamen. Between August 4 and August 5, 20 rebels and 32 government soldiers and militiamen, had been killed in the clashes. Sony SVE1511G1EW battery
Sony SVE1511H1ESI battery Hundreds of Alawite villagers fled rebel held-villages to Latakia. By 5 August, rebel fighters advancing to 20 kilometers from the town of Qardaha, the home town of the Assad family.[260][261] Sony SVE1511G1ESI battery
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On 6 August, rebels captured all of Menagh Military Airbase in northern Syria after a 10-month siege. The strategic airbase is located on the road between Aleppo city and the Turkish border.[262][263] Sony SVE1511S1EW battery
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On 19 August, AFP reports citing state-run SANA news agency that "Syrian army has recaptured all rebel-held positions in Latakia". However, the same report states that a Syrian security force source has "told AFP the army still had to recapture the Salma region, a strategic area along the border with Turkey that has been in rebel hands since the end of last year. Sony SVE1511S1ESI battery
Sony SVE1511S1EB battery" And that the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the "army has made progress" in Latakia province, but could not confirm that it had recaptured all the villages seized by the rebels. The Britain-based Observatory also said that rebel fighters on Sunday shot down a military plane over Salma.[264] Sony VPCCA4S1E battery
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On 26 August, rebel forces took over the village of Khanasir in Aleppo province. The strategic village was the government's last supply route for the contested city of Aleppo.[265]
Advanced weaponry and tactics
See also: Equipment of the Syrian Army and List of military equipment used by Syrian opposition forces
Chemical weapons
See also: Syria and weapons of mass destruction and 2013 Ghouta attacks
Familes and children in Ghouta massacred by a chemical attack in August 2013
Syria is thought to have the world's third-largest stockpile of chemical weapons, and opposition forces are concerned that the government may use them as a last resort to retain power.[266] In August 2012, Sony VPCCA2S1E battery
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Sony VPCSE2F1E battery the United States warned that the use of such weapons was a "red line" for the Ba'athist government, and would result in "enormous consequences" if crossed.[267] Similarly, France and the United Kingdom have warned of severe consequences for the use of chemical weapons, Sony SVS13AA11M battery
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Sony VPCSB4S9E battery with France in particular promising a "massive and blistering" response.[268]
Allegations that chemical weapons have been used in Syria first began to emerge on 23 December 2012, when Al Jazeera released unconfirmed reports that a gas attack killed 7 civilians in the rebel-held al-Bayyada neighbourhood of Homs.[269] Sony SVS151A11M battery
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On 19 March 2013, new unconfirmed reports surfaced that SCUD missiles armed with chemical agents may have been fired into the Khan al-Assal district in Aleppo and the Al Atebeh suburbs of Damascus, with both sides accusing each other of carrying out the attack.[27Sony SVS151A12M battery
Sony SVS1511W9EB battery0] In July it was revealed that Russian experts had visited the site and taken samples. According to their findings, the weapon contained sarin gas and was a nonstandard ordnance, not manufactured industrially. Russians claim it was fired by Bashair al-Nasr Brigade, a rebel group affiliated with the Free Syrian Army.[271] Sony SVS1311E3EW battery
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On 13 April, The Times reported that British military scientists have found forensic evidence of chemical weapons being used in the conflict, after examining a soil sample smuggled out of Syria.[272] Sony SVS1311P9EB battery
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On 23 April 2013, the New York Times reported that the British and French governments had sent a confidential letter to the United Nations Secretary General, claiming that there was evidence that the Syrian government had used chemical weapons in Aleppo, Homs, Sony SVS1511L3ES battery
Sony SVS1511T9ES battery and perhaps Damascus. Israel also claimed that the Syrian government had used chemical weapons on 19 March near Aleppo and Damascus.[273] By 25 April the U.S intelligence assessment was that the Assad government had likely used chemical weapons – specifically sarin gas.[27Sony SVS1511M3EW battery
Sony SVS1511N3ES battery4] However, the White House announced that "much more" work had to be done to verify the intelligence assessments.[275] Syria had refused an investigation team from the UN from entering Syria, though Jeffrey Feltman, Sony PCG-4121DM battery
Sony PCG-4121GM batteryUN under-secretary for political affairs, said that a refusal would not prevent an inquiry from being carried out.[276] Sony PCG-41213M battery
On 29 April, another chemical attack was reported, this time in Saraqib, in which 2 died and 13 were injured. The injured were taken to Turkey. On 5 May, Turkish doctors confirmed that no traces of sarin had been found in the blood samples of victims.[277] Sony PCG-4121EM battery
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After clandestinely spending two months in Jobar, Damascus, several reporters for the French news media Le Monde personally witnessed the Syrian army's use of chemical weapons on civilians.[278][279] Sony PCG-41218M battery
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A U.N. report stated that there are "reasonable grounds" to believe that limited amounts of chemical weapons have been used in at least four attacks in the civil war, but more evidence is needed to determine the exact chemical agents used or who was responsible. Sony PCG-41212M battery
Stating that it has not been possible "to determine the precise chemical agents used, their delivery systems or the perpetrator."[280]
British and French authorities claim to have evidence that Sarin nerve gas has been used in Syria, these findings and evidence have been passed on to the US government. Sony PCG-41215M battery
Sony PCG-31113M batteryThe evidence is largely made up of samples of bodily fluids taken from individuals who claim to have been affected. However both countries admitted that they cannot prove with "100% certainty" their claims.[281][282] Sony PCG-41216M battery
On 30 May, Turkish newspapers widely reported that Turkish security forces have arrested Al-Nusra Front fighters in the southern provinces of Mersin and Adana near the Syrian border and confiscated 2 kg of sarin gas from them.[28Sony PCG-41217M battery
3] The governor of Adana claimed that the security forces have not found sarin gas but unknown chemicals without further explanation.[284] Russia has asked Turkey for an official explanation.[285] Sony PCG-41218M battery
On 2 June, Iraq defense ministry claimed that they have intercepted an Al-Qaeda in Iraq cell working to produce sarin and mustard gas.[286]
On 13 June, the United States announced that there is definitive proof that the Assad government has used limited amounts of chemical weapons on multiple occasions on rebel forces, killing 100 to 150 people.[287Sony PCG-41311M battery
] Sarin was the agent used with no proof that the rebels had access to such weapons. Deputy National Security Advisor Ben Rhodes did not confirm whether this proof showed that Syria had crossed the 'red line' established by President Obama by using chemical weapons. Mr Rhodes stated that: "The president has said that the use of chemical weapons would change his calculus, and it has." [28Sony PCG-41313M battery
Sony VGP-BPS20/B battery8] Tests conducted by France confirmed the United States conclusions, according to the French government.[289] Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said that "the accusations of Damascus using chemical weapons put forth by the USA are not backed by credible facts."[2Sony PCG-41314M battery
Sony VGP-BPL20 battery90] Russian foreign minister Sergey Larov stated that it makes no sense for Syrian government to use chemical weapons when the government already maintains a military advantage over the rebel fighters.[291] Sony PCG-41315M battery
On 22 June the head of UN human rights investigation, Paulo Pinheiro, said the UN could not determine who used chemical weapons in Syria after the evidence had been delivered by the United States, Britain and France. Sony PCG-4R2M battery
However, the commission reported that there were "reasonable grounds to believe that chemical agents have been used as weapons".[292]
A chemical weapons attack by the Syrian government in the Zamalka district of Damascus was reported by the Syrian Support Group on 24 June 2013.[293] Sony PCG-6Z4M battery
On 9 July the Russian ambassador to UN state that Russian experts have determined that Syrian rebels used sarin nerve gas outside Aleppo in March and presented the evidence they have collected.[294][295][ Sony PCG-6121M battery
Sony VPCZ23K9E battery296] The United States White house Spokesmen, Jay Carney, told reporters at a press conference that they have yet to find evidence that backs up the assertion that anyone besides the Syrian government has had the ability to use chemical weapons or has used chemical weapons.[297][298] Sony PCG-6122M battery
On 5 August, another chemical attack by the Syrian army was reported by the opposition, who documented the injured with video footage. The activists claim up to 400 people were effected by the attack in Adra and Houma of the Damascus suburbs. The content of the chemicals used has not been identified yet.[299] Sony PCG-6123M battery
On 21 August, Syrian activists reported that Assad forces struck Jobar, Zamalka, 'Ain Tirma, and Hazzah in the Eastern Ghouta region with chemical weapons. At least 635 people were killed in a nerve gas attack. Unverified videos uploaded showed the victims, many of who were convulsing, as well as several dozen bodies lined up.[300Sony PCG-6124M battery
Sony VPCZ13V9E battery] Early sources reported a figure of 213 in a poisonous gas attack.[301] The SNC chief said that the overall death toll stood at an estimated 1300, as only a fraction of the bodies could be collected and many died within their own homes.[302] The UN inspectors arrived to the site of the attacks, Sony VPCZ13 battery
Sony VPCZ13M9E/B batterydespite being fired upon by an unknown party while underway. UN officials say that inspectors have gathered "valuable" evidence.[303]
Cluster bombs
The Syrian army began using cluster bombs in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms division at Human Rights Watch said “Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, Sony VPCZ11 battery
and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs,” “The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward.”[304] Sony VPCZ11X9E battery
Scud missile attacks
In December 2012, the Syrian government began using Scud missiles on rebel-held towns, primarily targeting Aleppo.[305] On 19 February, four Scud missiles were fired, three landed in Aleppo city and one on Tell Rifaat town, Aleppo province. Between December and February, at least 40 Scud missile landings were reported.[3Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery
Sony VPCZ12Z9E/B battery06] Altogether, Scud missiles killed 141 people in the month of February.[307] The United States condemned the Scud missile attacks.[308] On 1 March, a Scud missile landed in Iraq. It is believed that the intention was to hit the Deir Ezzor governate.[309] On 29 March, a Scud missile landed on Hretan, Aleppo, killing 20 and injuring 50.[310] On 28 April,
Sony VPCZ12V9E/B battery a Scud missile landed on Tell Rifaat, killing four, two of them women and two of them children, SOHR reported.[311] On 3 June a surface to surface missile, not confirmed as a Scud, hit the village of Kafr Hamrah around midnight killing 26 people including six women and eight children according to SOHR.[312] Sony VPCZ11Z9E battery
Suicide bombings
Further information: List of bombings during the Syrian civil war
Suicide bombings began in December 2011; Jabhat al-Nusra has claimed responsibility for 57 out of 70 similar attacks through April 2013.[64][313] Targeting government officials, the bombings have claimed numerous civilian casualties.[314] Sony VPCZ12C7E/B battery
Thermobaric weapons
Thermobaric weapons, also known as "fuel-air bombs," may have been used by the government side during the Syrian civil war. Since 2012, rebels have claimed that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, Sony VPCZ12M9E battery
Sony VPCZ12M9E/B battery such as during the Battle of Aleppo and also in Kafr Batna.[315][316] A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the rebellious town of Qusayr in March 2013.[317Sony VGP-BPL14 battery
Non-state parties in the conflict
See also: List of armed groups in the Syrian civil war
Shabiha
Main article: Shabiha
The Shabiha are unofficial pro-government militias drawn largely from Assad's Alawite minority group. Since the uprising, the Syrian government has frequently used shabiha to break up protests and enforce laws in restive neighborhoods.[318] As the protests escalated into an armed conflict, the opposition started using the term shabiha to describe any civilian Assad supporter taking part in the government's crackdown on the uprising.[319] The opposition blames the shabiha for the many violent excesses committed against anti-government protesters and opposition sympathizers,[319] as well as looting and destruction.[320][321] In December 2012, the shabiha were designated a terrorist organization by the United States.[322]
Bassel al-Assad is reported to have created the shabiha in the 1980s for the government use in times of crisis.[323] Shabiha have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad's regime";[324] "gunmen loyal to Assad",[325] and "semi-criminal gangs comprised of thugs close to the regime".[325] Despite the group's image as an Alawite militia, some shabiha operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunnis.[326]
In 2012, the Assad government created a more organized official militia known as the Jaysh al-Sha'bi, allegedly with help from Iran and Hezbollah. As with the shabiha, the vast majority of Jaysh al-Sha'bi members are Alawite and Shi'ite volunteers.[327][328]
Free Syrian Army Sony VGP-BPL14/B battery
Main article: Free Syrian Army
Free Syrian Army fighters being transported by pick up truck
The Free Syrian Army (FSA) is the main armed opposition in Syria. Its formation was announced in late July 2011 by a group of defecting Syrian Army officers. Sony VGP-BPS14 battery
In a video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend civilian protesters from violence by the state.[329] Many Syrian soldiers subsequently deserted to join the FSA.[330] The actual number of soldiers who defected to the FSA is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000 by December 2011. Sony VGP-BPS14/S battery
Sony VGN-Z51MG/B battery [331] The FSA functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command, and is "headquartered" in Turkey. As such, it cannot issue direct orders to its various bands of fighters, but many of the most effective armed groups are fighting under the FSA's banner. Sony VGN-Z11MN/B battery
As deserting soldiers abandoned their armored vehicles and brought only light weaponry and munitions, FSA adopted guerilla-style tactics against government security forces in urban areas. Its primary target has been the Shabiha militias; Sony VGN-Z11XN/X battery
Sony VGN-Z31XN/B batterymost FSA attacks are directed against trucks and buses that are believed to carry security reinforcements. Sometimes, the occupants of government vehicles are taken as hostages, while in other cases the vehicles are attacked either with roadside bombs or with hit-and-run attacks. The FSA has also targeted power lines and water mains in "retaliation against Hezbollah's provocations".[33Sony VGN-Z21MN/B battery
Sony VGN-Z41WD/B battery2] To encourage defection, the FSA began attacking army patrols, shooting the commanders and trying to convince the soldiers to switch sides. FSA units have also acted as defense forces by guarding neighborhoods with strong opposition presences, patrolling streets while protests take place, Sony VGN-Z21XN battery
Sony VGP-BPS12/Q batteryand attacking Shabiha members. However, the FSA also engaged in street battles with security forces in Deir ez-Zor, Al-Rastan, and Abu Kamal. Fighting in these cities raged for days, with no clear victor. Sony VGN-Z21ZN/X battery
Sony VGP-BPS12 battery In Hama, Homs, Al-Rastan, Deir ez-Zor and Daraa in late 2011, the Syrian military used airstrikes against them, leading to calls from the FSA for the imposition of a no-fly zone by Western powers.[333] Sony VGN-Z31MN/B battery
More than 3,000 members of the Syrian security forces had been killed by May 2011, which the Syrian government stated was due to "armed gangs" among the protesters. However, the opposition blamed the deaths on the government.[33Sony VGN-Z31WN/B battery
Sony VGP-BPL12 battery4] Syrians have been crossing the border to Lebanon to buy weapons on the black market since the beginning of the protests.[335] Clan leaders in Syria claim that the armed uprising is of a tribal, revenge-based nature, not Islamist. Sony VGN-Z31ZN/B battery
Sony VGN-Z battery [336] On 6 June, the government said more than 120 security personnel were killed by "armed gangs"; 20 in an ambush, and 82 in an attack on a security post.[33Sony VGN-Z51WG battery
Sony VGN-Z51XG battery7] The main centers of unrest have been described as being predominately Sunni Muslim towns and cities close to the country's borders where smuggling has been common for generations, and thus have more access to smuggled weapons.[338] Dell XPS 14 battery
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Daniel Byman believes the political and military opposition are each worryingly divided and disconnected from each other,[339] and thus uniting, training and pushing the armed opposition to avoid religious sectarianism is crucial. Dell XPS 15 battery
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Dell XPS M1730 batteryThe latter is important, for otherwise the Alawites and other minorities will fight all the harder, and make post-Assad Syria more difficult to govern.[340] Others would say that part of Byman's analysis represents a failure to understand that the leadership within Syria is decentralised out of necessity, that this is a good thing, Dell XPS L401X battery
Dell XPS M1530 batteryand that decentralisation is not the same thing as fragmentation, and certainly does not represent an absence of strong leadership.[341] Whichever view one accepts, there are undeniably rivalries between different strands and disagreement between those advocating peaceful protests and those backing armed struggle.[342][343]
In the spring of 2013, Dell XPS L501X battery
Dell XPS M140 batterythere were reports of many defections from the FSA to al-Nusra, due to lack of weapons. FSA fighters complained about the lack of western help, and cited al-Nusra as an organization which could effectively provide weaponry needs for their fighters. One estimate put the number of defections to al-Nusra as high as 25% of the FSA.[344] Dell XPS L502X battery
In May 2013, Salim Idriss, one of the FSA leaders, acknowledged that rebels were badly fragmented and lacked the military skill needed to topple the government of President Bashar al-Assad. He said it was difficult to unify rebels because many of them were civilians and only a few of them had military service. Dell XPS L701X battery
Dell XPS M1330 batteryIdriss said he was working on a countrywide command structure, but that a lack of material support was hurting that effort. He pointed out shortage of ammunition and weapons, fuel for the cars and money for logistics and salaries. “The battles are not so simple now,” Idriss said. Dell XPS L702X battery
Dell XPS M1210 battery “At the beginning of the revolution, they had to fight against a checkpoint. They had to fight against a small group of the army. Now they have to liberate an air base. Now they have to liberate a military school. Small units can’t do that alone, and now it is very important for them to be unified. But unifying them in a manner to work like a regular army is still difficult." Dell Latitude E4200 battery
He denied any cooperation with Jabhat al-Nusra but acknowledged common operations with another Islamist group Ahrar ash-Sham. In April the US announced it would transfer $123 million of aid through his group.[345] Dell Latitude E5400 battery
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