Bergen and Oslo- Norway 2
provided by Mercer Human Resource Consulting[37] and first according to the Economist Intelligence Unit.[38] Sony VGP-BPS13B/B Battery
Sony VGP-BPS14B BatteryThe reason for this discrepancy is that the EIU omits certain factors from its final index calculation, most notably housing. Although Oslo does have the most expensive housing market in Norway, it is comparably cheaper than other cities on the list in that regard. Meanwhile, prices on goods and services remain some of the highest of any city. Sony VGP-BPS13/B Battery
Oslo hosts 2654 of the largest companies in Norway. Within the ranking of Europe's largest cities ordered by their number of companies Oslo is in fifth position. A whole group of oil and gas companies is situated in Oslo. According to a report compiled by Swiss bank UBS in the month of August 2006,[39] Oslo and London were the world's most expensive cities. Sony VGP-BPS13B/S Battery
Environment[edit source | editbeta]
Oslo is a compact city. It is easy to move around by public transportation and you can access rentable city bikes all over the city centre. In 2003, Oslo received The European Sustainable City Award and in 2007 Reader's Digest ranked Oslo as number two on a list of the world's greenest, most liveable cities.[40][41] Sony VGP-BPS13/Q Battery
The level of education and productivity in the workforce is high in Norway. Nearly half of those with education at tertiary level in Norway live in the Oslo region, placing it among Europe's top three regions in relation to education. In 2008, the total workforce in the greater Oslo region (5 counties) Sony VGP-BSP13/S Battery
Sony VGP-BPS14 Batterynumbered 1,020,000 people. The greater Oslo region has several higher educational institutions and is home to more than 73,000 students. The University of Oslo is the largest institution for higher education in Norway with 27,400 students and 7,028 employees in total.[47] Sony PCG-3B1L Battery
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Culture[edit source | editbeta]
Oslo has a large and varied number of cultural attractions, which include several buildings containing artwork from Edvard Munch and various other international artists but also several Norwegian artists. Several world-famous writers have either lived or been born in Oslo. Examples are Knut Hamsun and Henrik Ibsen. The government has recently invested large amounts of money in cultural installations, Sony PCG-3B2L Battery
Sony PCG-5R1L Batteryfacilities, buildings and festivals in the City of Oslo. Bygdøy, outside the city centre is the centre for history and the Norwegian Vikings' history. The area contains a large number of parks and seasites and many museums. Examples are the Fram Museum, Vikingskiphuset and the Kon-Tiki Museum. Oslo hosts the annual Oslo Freedom Forum, Sony PCG-3B3L Battery
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Sony PCG-5P2L Battery a conference described by The Economist as “on its way to becoming a human-rights equivalent of the Davos economic forum.”[48] Oslo is also known for giving out the Nobel Peace Prize every year.
Museums, galleries[edit source | editbeta] Sony PCG-3C2L Battery
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Historic buildings at Norsk Folkemuseum
Oslo houses several major museums and galleries. The Munch Museum contains the Scream and other works by Edvard Munch, who donated all his work to the city after his death.[49] The City-Council is currently planning a new Munch Museum which is most likely to be built in Bjørvika, in the southeast of the city.[50] The museum will be named Munch/Stenersen.[50] Sony PCG-3C3L Battery
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50 different museums are located around the city.[51] Folkemuseet is located on the Bygdøy peninsula and is dedicated to Folk art, Folk Dress, Sami culture and the viking culture. The outdoor museum contains 155 authentic old buildings from all parts of Norway, including a Stave Church.[52] Sony PCG-3D4L Battery
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The Vigeland Museum located in the large Vigeland Park by many people known as the Frognerpark is free to access and contains over 212 sculptures by Gustav Vigeland including an obelisk and the Wheel of Life.[53] Another popular sculpture is Sinnataggen, a baby boy stamping his foot in fury. This statue is very well known as an icon in the city.[5Sony PCG-3F1L Battery
Sony PCG-3H4L Battery4] The Viking Ship Museum features three Viking ships found at Oseberg, Gokstad and Tune and several other unique items from the Viking age.[55] The Oslo City Museum holds a permanent exhibition about the people in Oslo and the history of the city.[56] The Kon-Tiki Museum houses Thor Heyerdahl's Kontiki and Ra2.[57] Sony PCG-3F2L Battery
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Nobel Peace Center
The National Museum holds and preserves, exhibits and promotes public knowledge about Norway's most extensive collection of art.[58Sony PCG-3F3L Battery
Sony PCG-3H2L Battery] The Museum shows permanent exhibitions of works from its own collections but also temporary exhibitions that incorporate work loaned from elsewhere.[58] The National Museums exhibition avenues are the National Gallery, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the National Museum, the Museum of Decorative Arts and the National Museum of Architecture.[58Sony PCG-3F4L Battery
Sony PCG-3H1L Battery] A new National Museum in Oslo will be built in the next 10 years. The winner was Forum Artis, and the building will be located at Vestbanen behind the Nobel Peace Center.[59] The Nobel Peace Center is an independent organisation opened on 11 June 2005 by the King Harald V as part of the celebrations to mark Norway's centenary as an independent country.[ Sony PCG-3B1L Battery
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Sony PCG-3G5L Battery60] The building houses a permanent exhibition, expanding every year when a new Nobel Peace Prize winner is announced, containing information of every winner in history. The building is mainly used as a communication centre.[60] Sony PCG-3J1L Battery
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Music and events[edit source | editbeta]
A large number of festivals are held in Oslo, such as Oslo Jazz festival, a six-day Jazz festival which has been held annually in August for the past 25 years.[61] Oslo's biggest Rock festival is Øyafestivalen or simply "Øya". It draws about 60,000 people to the Medieval Park east in Oslo and last for four days.[62] Sony PCG-5P4L Battery
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The Oslo International Church Music Festival[63] has been held annually since 2000. The Oslo World Music Festival showcases people who are stars in their own country but strangers in Norway. The Oslo Chamber Music Festival is held in August every year and world-class chambers and soloists gather in Oslo to perform at this festival. The Norwegian Wood Rock Festival is held every year in June in Oslo. Sony PCG-5S1L Battery
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The Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony is headed by the Institute; the award ceremony is held annually in The City Hall on 10 December.[64] Even though Sami land is far away from the capital, the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History marks the Sami National Day with a series of activities and entertainment. Sony PCG-5S3L Battery
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The World Cup Biathlon in Holmenkollen is held every year and here male and female competitors compete against each other in Sprint, Pursuit and Mass Start disciplines.[65]
Other examples of annual events in Oslo are Desucon, a convention focusing on Japanese culture[66] and Færderseilasen, the world's largest overnight regatta with more than 1100 boats taking part every year.[67] Sony PCG-5T3L Battery
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Rikard Nordraak, composer of the Norwegian national anthem, was born in Oslo in 1842.
Norway's principal orchestra is the Oslo Philharmonic, based at the Oslo Concert Hall since 1977. Although it was founded in 1919, the Oslo Philharmonic can trace its roots to the founding of the Christiania Musikerforening (Christiania Musicians Society) by Edvard Grieg and Johan Svendsen in 1879.[68] Sony PCG-7142L Battery
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Oslo has hosted the Eurovision Song Contest twice.
Performing arts[edit source | editbeta]
The National Theatre is the largest theatre in Norway[69]
Oslo houses over 20 theatres, such as the Norwegian Theatre and the National Theatre located at Karl Johan Street. The National Theatre is the largest theatre in Norway and is situated between the royal palace and the parliament building, Stortinget.[6Sony PCG-7151L Battery
Sony PCG-7184L Battery9] The names of Ludvig Holberg, Henrik Ibsen and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson are engraved on the façade of the building over the main entrance. This theatre represents the actors and play-writers of the country but the songwriters, singers and dancers are represented in the form of a newly opened Oslo Opera House, situated in Bjørvika. Sony PCG-7152L Battery
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The Opera was opened in 2008 and is a national landmark, designed by the Norwegian architectural firm, Snøhetta. There are two houses, together containing over 2000 seats. The building cost 500 million euro to build and took five years to build and is known for being the first Opera House in the world to let people walk on the roof of the building. The foyer and the roof are also used for concerts as well as the three stages.[70] Sony PCG-7154L Battery
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Literature[edit source | editbeta]
Most great Norwegian authors have lived in Oslo for some period in their life. For instance, Nobel Prize-winning author Sigrid Undset grew up in Oslo, and described her life there in the autobiographical novel Elleve år (1934; translated as The longest years; New York 1971). Sony PCG-7161L Battery
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The playwright Henrik Ibsen is probably the most famous Norwegian author. Ibsen wrote plays such as Hedda Gabler, Peer Gynt, A Doll's House and The Lady from the Sea. The Ibsen Quotes project completed in 2008 is a work of art consisting of 69 Ibsen quotations in stainless steel lettering which have been set into the granite sidewalks of the city's central streets.[71] Sony PCG-7171L Battery
In recent years, novelists like Lars Saabye Christensen, Tove Nilsen and Roy Jacobsen have described the city and its people in their novels. Early 20th-century literature from Oslo include poets Rudolf Nilsen and André Bjerke.
Media[edit source | editbeta] Sony PCG-7172L Battery
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The newspapers Aftenposten, Dagbladet, Verdens Gang, Dagens Næringsliv, Finansavisen, Dagsavisen, Morgenbladet, Vårt Land, Nationen and Klassekampen are published in Oslo. The main office of the national broadcasting company NRK is located at Marienlyst in Oslo, Sony PCG-7173L Battery
near Majorstuen. TVNorge (TVNorway) is also located in Oslo, while TV 2 (based in Bergen) and TV3 (based in London) operate branch offices in central Oslo. There is also a variety of specialty publications and smaller media companies. A number of magazines are produced in Oslo. The two dominant companies are Aller Media and Hjemmet Mortensen AB.
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Bislett Stadion during a friendly against Liverpool FC
Sports[edit source | editbeta]
Holmenkollen National Arena and Holmenkollbakken is the country's main biathlon and Nordic skiing venue. It hosts annual world cup tournaments, including the Holmenkollen Ski Festival. It has hosted Biathlon World Championships in 1986, 1990, 1999 and 2002. FIS Nordic World Ski Championships have been hosted in 1930, 1966, 1982 and 2011, as well as the 1952 Winter Olympics.
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Ullevål Stadion is the home arena for the Tippeligaen football side Vålerenga Fotball, the Norwegian national football team and the Football Cup Final. The stadium has previously hosted the finals of the UEFA Women's Championship in 1987 and 1997, and the 2002 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship.[72] Røa IL is Oslo's only team in the women's league, Toppserien. Each year, the international youth football tournament Norway Cup is held on Ekebergsletta and other places in the city. Sony PCG-6Z2M battery
Bislett Stadion is the city's main track and field venue, and hosts the annual Bislett Games, part of IAAF Diamond League. Bjerke Travbane is the main venue for harness racing in the country. Oslo Spektrum is used for large ice hockey and handball matches. Bækkelagets SK and Nordstrand IF plays in the women's Postenligaen in handball, while Vålerenga Håndball plays in the men's league. Jordal Amfi, Sony PCG-4Q2M battery,
Sony PCG-71315M batterythe home of the ice hockey team Vålerenga Ishockey, and Manglerudhallen is the home of Manglerud Star, both of whom play in GET-ligaen. The 1999 IIHF World Championship in ice hockey were held in Oslo, as have three Bandy World Championships, in 1961, 1977 and 1985. The UCI Road World Championships in bicycle road racing were hosted 1993. Sony PCG-4Q1M battery
Crime[edit source | editbeta]
Oslo Courthouse
Oslo Police District is Norway's largest police district with over 2300 employees. Over 1700 of those are police officers, nearly 140 police lawyers and 500 civil employees. Oslo Police District has five police stations located around the city. The National Criminal Investigation Service is located in Oslo, which is a Norwegian special police division under the NMJP. PST is also located in the Oslo District. PST is a security agency which was established in 1936 and is one of the non-secret agencies in Norway. Sony PCG-71C11M battery
Oslo police stated that the capital is one of Europe's safest. But the statistics have showed that crime in Oslo is on the rise, and some media have reported that there are four times as many thefts and robberies in Oslo than in New York City for example.[73][74Sony PCG-61511M battery
Sony PCG-71511M battery] This was echoed by the German travel guide Dumont who now describes the city as being unsafe for female tourists. The guide also named Oslo "The Crime capital of Scandinavia".[75] According to the Oslo Police, they receive more than 15,000 reports of petty thefts annually. That is per capita more than seven times the number of Berlin for example. Approx 0.8% of those cases get solved.[76] Sony PCG-61611M battery
Oslo has witnessed annual spikes in sexual assault cases in recent years.[77] The Official Committee on Sexual Assaults (Voldteksutvalget) have reported that around 90% of rape incidents in Norway go unreported. And that there is about 1% chance that the rapist will be convicted. Activists have claimed that women's lack of due process in rape cases is seriously affecting women's rights in Norway.[78] Sony PCG-61813M battery
On 22 July 2011, Oslo was the site of one of two terrorist attacks: the bombing of Oslo government offices, and a shooting at a youth camp in Utøya.[79]
Transport[edit source | editbeta]
Oslo has Norway's most extensive public transport system, managed by Ruter.[80] This includes the six-line Oslo Metro,[81] the world's most extensive metro per resident, the six-line Oslo Tramway[82Sony PCG-71411M battery
] and the eight-line Oslo Commuter Rail.[83] The tramway operates within the areas close to the city centre, while the metro, which runs underground through the city centre, operates to suburbs further away; this includes two lines that operate to Bærum, and the Ring Line which loops to areas north of the centre.[84] Sony PCG-91112M battery
Oslo Central Station acts as the central hub,[85] and offers rail services to most major cities in southern Norway as well as Stockholm and Gothenburg in Sweden.[86] The Airport Express Train operates along the high-speed Gardermoen Line. Sony PCG-91311M battery
Sony PCG-61611M batteryThe Drammen Line runs under the city centre in the Oslo Tunnel.[87] Some of the city islands and the neighbouring municipality of Nesodden are connected by ferry.[88] Daily cruiseferry services operate to Copenhagen and Frederikshavn in Denmark, and to Kiel in Germany.[89] Sony PCG-71316M battery
Many of the motorways pass through the downtown and other parts of the city in tunnels. The construction of the roads is partially supported through a toll ring. The major motorways through Oslo are European Route E6 and E18. There are three beltways, the innermost which are streets and the outermost, Ring 3 which is an expressway.
The main airport serving the city is Gardermoen Airport, located in Ullensaker, 47 kilometres (29 mi) from the city centre of Oslo.[90] It acts as the main international gateway to Norway,[91] and is the sixth-largest domestic airport in Europe.[92] Gardermoen is a hub for Scandinavian Airlines,
Sony PCG-71C11M battery Norwegian Air Shuttle and Widerøe. Oslo is also served by two secondary airports, which serve some low-cost carriers, such as Ryanair:[93] Rygge Airport[94] and Torp Airport, the latter being 110 kilometres (68 mi) from the city.[95] Sony PCG-6X4M battery,
432,000, or 70.4% of Oslo's population is ethnic Norwegian, an increase of 6% since 2002 (409,000).[98] Oslo has the largest population of immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents in Norway, both in relative and absolute figures. Of Oslo’s 624,000 inhabitants, 189,400 were immigrants or Norwegian-born to immigrant parents, which is 30.4 per cent of the capital’s entire population. Sony PCG-4Q2M battery
Sony PCG-4Q1M batteryAll suburbs in Oslo were above the national average of 14.1 per cent. The suburbs with the highest proportions of immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents were Søndre Nordstrand, Stovner og Alna, with around 50 per cent.[99] Sony vgp-bps24 battery
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Pakistanis make up the single largest ethnic minority, followed by Swedes, Somalis, and Poles —these are the four largest ethnic minority groups. Other large immigrant groups are people from Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Turkey, Morocco, Iraq and Iran.[100][101][102][103] Sony VPCSD1S1C battery
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In 2013, 40% of Oslo's primary school pupils were registered as having another first language than Norwegian or Sami.[104] The western part of town is predominantly ethnic Norwegian, with several schools having less than 5% pupils with an immigrant background. The eastern part of Oslo is more mixed, with some schools up to 97% immigrant share.[10Sony VPCSA2Z9E battery
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5] Schools are also increasingly divided by ethnicity, with white flight being present in some of the northeastern suburbs of the city.[106][107] In the borough Groruddalen in 2008 for instance, the ethnic Norwegian population decreased by 1,500, while the immigrant population increased by 1,600.[108] Sony SVE171A11M battery
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Oslo is a city with various religious communities. In 2008 63% of the population were members of the Norwegian Church, lower than the national average of 82%.[109] In 2011 almost 20% of the population were registered in other religious or life stance communities.[110] Sony SVE151C11M battery
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In 2012 there were about 48,000 registered Muslims in Oslo, making up about 8% of the population, and about 33,000 registered Catholics.[111] Life stance communities, mainly the Norwegian Humanist Association, had about 18,000 members in 2011.[110] Sony SVE1511G1ESI battery
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Norway (i/ˈnɔrweɪ/; Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Scandinavian unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, HP MU06 Battery
Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island.[note 1] Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million.[10] It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The country shares a long border with Sweden (1,619 km, HP MU09 Battery
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HP HA06 Battery or 1,006 mi, long), which is the longest uninterrupted border within both Europe and the Schengen Area. Norway is also bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, and the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark to the south. It shares maritime borders with Russia by the Barents Sea;
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HP HA03 Battery Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland by the Norwegian Sea; and Sweden, Denmark and the United Kingdom by the North Sea. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords. The capital city and the largest with the highest population at almost 1 million is Oslo. HP RM08 Battery
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Two centuries of Viking raids tapered off following the adoption of Christianity by King Olav Tryggvason in 994. A period of civil war ended in the 13th century when Norway expanded its control overseas to parts of Britain, Ireland, Iceland and Greenland. Norwegian territorial power peaked in 1265, HP RS06 Battery
but competition from the Hanseatic League and the spread of the Black Death weakened the country. In 1380, Norway was absorbed into a union with Denmark that lasted more than four centuries. In 1814, Norwegians resisted the cession of their country to Sweden and adopted a new constitution. HP VE06 Battery
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HP MT06 Battery Sweden went to war with Norway but agreed to let Norway keep its constitution in return for accepting the union under a Swedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led to a referendum in 1905 granting Norway independence. Although Norway remained neutral in World War I, HP VE12 Battery
it suffered heavy losses to its shipping. Norway proclaimed its neutrality at the outset of World War II but was nonetheless occupied for five years by the Third Reich. In 1949, neutrality was abandoned, and Norway became a founding member of NATO. HP GA08 Battery
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HP BX06 Battery Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. In referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the European Union. Key domestic issues include immigration and integration of ethnic minorities, maintaining the country's extensive social safety net with an ageing population, HP MO06 Battery
HP PT06 Battery and preserving economic competitiveness.[2][11]
King Harald V is Norway's head of state, and Jens Stoltenberg is its prime minister. It has administrative subdivisions on two levels known as counties (fylke) and municipalities (kommuner). Sony VPCCA4S1E battery
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HP MN06 Battery The Sámi people have a certain amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament and the Finnmark Act. Although having rejected European Union membership in two referenda, Norway maintains close ties with the union and its member countries, HP EV06 Battery
as well as with the United States. Norway participates with United Nations forces in international missions, notably in Afghanistan, Sony VPCCB3M1E battery
Sony SVS151A11M batteryKosovo, Sudan and Libya. Norway is a founding member of the United Nations, NATO, the Council of Europe and the Nordic Council; HP EV12 Battery
HP GB06 Batterya member of the European Economic Area, the WTO and the OECD; and is also a part of the Schengen Area.
Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, fresh water, and hydropower. HP CL09 Battery
HP LU06 BatteryThe country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world. On a per-capita basis, it is the world's largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East,[12][13] and the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country's gross domestic product.[14] Sony VPCCA3S1E battery
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The country maintains a welfare model with universal health care, subsidized higher education, and a comprehensive social security system. From 2001 to 2006,[15] and then again from 2009 to 2011, Norway has had the highest human development index ranking in the world.[16][17] In 2011Sony VPCCA2S1E battery
,
Sony PCG-41413L BatteryNorway also had the highest ranking on the Democracy Index[18] and the Legatum Prosperity Index. According to UNDP, Norway is the world's best country.[19] Forbes rank Norway #4 in their list The World's richest countries, Sony SVS13AA11L Battery
Sony PCG-41412L Batterywhich compares countries by GDP.[20] Norway was the first independent country to introduce women's suffrage in 1913.[21]
Modern[citation needed] etymologists believe the country's name means "the northward route" (the "way north" or the "north way"), which in Old Norse would have been nor veg or *norð vegr. The Old Norse name for Norway was Nóregr, the Anglo-Saxon Norþ weg and mediaeval Latin Northvegia. Sony SVS13A1U9ES battery
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Sony PCG-41411L Battery The official name of the Kingdom of Norway in Bokmål is "Kongeriket Norge", while in Nynorsk it is "Kongeriket Noreg", both only a couple of letters removed from the original "northern way": Nor(d)-(v)eg. Sony SVS131A11L Battery
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Ohthere of Hålogaland around 890 AD distinguished "Norwegians" ("nordmenn", the people of Norvegr) from Sami people and Danes. While he identified the Sami people by their nomadic way of life, Danes he identified geographically or politically. According to Ohthere, "Danes" dominated Skagerrak and Kattegat, Sony SVS151A11L Battery
the bodies of water separating present day Denmark from the Scandinavian peninsula. "Norwegians" on the other hand lived on the North Sea and Atlantic coasts, and were connected to the islands of the North Atlantic. Ohthere's Norway covered a much smaller area than present day Norway.[22] Sony SVS151B11L Battery
The first inhabitants were the Ahrensburg culture (11th to 10th millennia BC) which was a late Upper Paleolithic culture during the Younger Dryas, the last spell of cold at the end of the Weichsel glaciation. Sony SVS151G1GL Battery
The culture is named after the village of Ahrensburg, 25 km (15.53 mi) north-east of Hamburg in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, where wooden arrow shafts and clubs have been excavated.[2
Sony PCG-41218L Battery3] The earliest traces of human occupation in Norway are found along the coast, where the huge ice shelf of the last ice age first melted between 11,000 and 8,000 BC. The oldest finds are stone tools dating from 9,500 to 6,000 BC, discovered in Finnmark (Komsa culture) in the north and Rogaland (Fosna culture) Sony PCG-4121DL Battery
Sony PCG-41217L Battery in the south-west. However, theories about two altogether different cultures (the Komsa culture north of the Arctic Circle being one and the Fosna culture from Trøndelag to Oslo Fjord being the other) Sony PCG-4121EL Battery
were rendered obsolete in the 1970s. More recent finds along the entire coast revealed to archaeologists that the difference between the two can simply be ascribed to different types of tools and not to different cultures. Sony PCG-4121FL Battery
Sony PCG-41216L BatteryCoastal fauna provided a means of livelihood for fishermen and hunters, who may have made their way along the southern coast about 10,000 BC when the interior was still covered with ice. It is now thought that these so-called "Arctic" peoples came from the south and followed the coast northward considerably later. Sony PCG-4121GL Battery
Some may have come along the ice-free coast of the Kola Peninsula, but the evidence of this is still poor.
Approximate extent of the Corded Ware culture.
In the southern part of the country are dwelling sites dating from about 5,000 BC. Finds from these sites give a clearer idea of the life of the hunting and fishing peoples. The implements vary in shape and mostly are made of different kinds of stone; Sony PCG-41211L Battery
Sony PCG-41215L Batterythose of later periods are more skillfully made. Rock carvings (i.e. petroglyphs) have been found, usually near hunting and fishing grounds. They represent game such as deer, reindeer, elk, bears, birds, seals, whales, and fish (especially salmon and halibut), all of which were vital to the way of life of the coastal peoples. Sony PCG-41212L Battery
The carvings at Alta in Finnmark, the largest in Scandinavia, were made at sea level continuously from 4,200 to 500 BC and mark the progression of the land as it rose from the sea after the last ice age (Rock carvings at Alta). Sony PCG-41213L Battery
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Between 3000 and 2500 BC new settlers (Corded Ware culture) arrived in eastern Norway. They were Indo-European farmers who grew grain and kept cows and sheep. The hunting-fishing population of the west coast was also gradually replaced by farmers, though hunting and fishing remained useful secondary means of livelihood. sony PCG-4R2L battery
From about 1500 BC bronze was gradually introduced, but the use of stone implements continued; Norway had few riches to barter for bronze goods, and the few finds consist mostly of elaborate weapons and brooches that only chieftains could afford. sony PCG-4R1L battery
sony PCG-6Z4L batteryHuge burial cairns built close to the sea as far north as Harstad and also inland in the south are characteristic of this period. The motifs of the rock carvings differ from those typical of the Stone Age. Representations of the Sun, animals, trees, weapons, ships and people are all strongly stylized, probably as fertility symbols connected with the religious ideas of the period.
Iron Age[edit]
Main article: Pre-Roman Iron Age
Little has been found dating from the early Iron Age (the last 500 years BC). The dead were cremated, and their graves contain few burial goods. During the first four centuries AD the people of Norway were in contact with Roman-occupied Gaul. sony PCG-4Q4L battery
sony PCG-6Z2L batteryAbout 70 Roman bronze cauldrons, often used as burial urns, have been found. Contact with the civilized countries farther south brought a knowledge of runes; the oldest known Norwegian runic inscription dates from the 3rd century. At this time the amount of settled area in the country increased, sony PCG-4Q3L battery
sony PCG-6Z1L battery a development that can be traced by coordinated studies of topography, archaeology, and place-names. The oldest root names, such as nes, vik, and bø ("cape," "bay," and "farm"), are of great antiquity, dating perhaps from the Bronze Age, sony PCG-4Q1L battery
sony PCG-6XBL battery whereas the earliest of the groups of compound names with the suffixes vin ("meadow") or heim ("settlement"), as in Bjorgvin (Bergen) or Saeheim (Seim), usually date from the 1st century AD. sony PCG-6X1L battery
Migration Age[edit]
Main article: Migration Age
The destruction of the Western Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes (5th century) is characterized by rich finds, including chieftains' graves containing magnificent weapons and gold objects. Hill forts were built on precipitous rocks for defense. sony PCG-6X2L battery
sony PCG-6X8L batteryExcavation has revealed stone foundations of farmhouses 18 to 27 metres (60 to 90 feet) long—one even 46 metres (150 feet) long—the roofs of which were supported on wooden posts. These houses were family homesteads where several generations lived together, with people and cattle under one roof. sony PCG-6X6L battery
sony PCG-6X7L battery From this period and later (600–800), nascent communities can be traced. Defense works require cooperation and leadership, so petty states of some kind with a defense and administrative organization must have existed. Sony SVS13AB1GL Battery
These states were based on either clans or tribes (e.g., the Horder of Hordaland in western Norway). By the 9th century each of these small states had things, or tings (local or regional assemblies), for negotiating and settling disputes. The thing meeting places, each eventually with a horg (open-air sanctuary) or a hov (temple; literally "hill"),Sony SVS131C1DL Battery
Sony PCG-71913L Battery were usually situated on the oldest and best farms, which belonged to the chieftains and wealthiest farmers. The regional things united to form even larger units: assemblies of deputy yeomen from several regions. In this way, the lagting (assemblies for negotiations and lawmaking) developed. Sony SVS131C24L Battery
Sony PCG-71912L Battery The Gulating had its meeting place by Sognefjord and may have been the centre of an aristocratic confederation along the western fjords and islands called the Gulatingslag. The Frostating was the assembly for the leaders in the Trondheimsfjord area; the earls Jarls of Lade, Sony SVS131E1DL Battery
Sony PCG-71911L Battery near Trondheim, seem to have enlarged the Frostatingslag by adding the coastland from Romsdalsfjord to the Lofoten Islands. A lagting developed in the area of Lake Mjøsa in the east and eventually established its meeting place at Eidsvoll, becoming known as the Eidsivating. The area around Oslofjord, Sony SVS131G1DL Battery
although at times closely tied to Denmark, developed a lagting—with its meeting place at Sarpsborg called the Borgarting.
The Viking Age was characterized by expansion and emigration by Viking seafarers. According to tradition, Harald Fairhair (Harald Hårfagre) unified them into one in 872 after the Battle of Hafrsfjord in Stavanger, thus becoming the first king of a united Norway. Sony SVS151C1GL Battery
Sony PCG-71811L Battery (The date of 872 may be somewhat arbitrary. In fact, the actual date may be just prior to 900).[24] Harald's realm was mainly a South Norwegian coastal state. Harald Fairhair ruled with a strong hand and, according to the sagas, Sony SVS151C2DL Battery
Sony PCG-71713L Batterymany Norwegians left the country to live in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and parts of Britain and Ireland. The modern-day Irish cities of Dublin, Limerick and Waterford were founded by Norwegian (and Danish) settlers.[2Sony SVS151E1GL Battery
Sony PCG-71614L Battery5] Norse traditions were slowly replaced by Christian ones in the 10th and 11th centuries. This is largely attributed to the missionary kings Olav Tryggvasson and St. Olav. Haakon the Good was Norway's first Christian king, in the mid-10th century, though his attempt to introduce the religion was rejected. Sony PCG-61A11L Battery
Sony PCG-61913L Battery Born sometime in between 963–969, Olav Tryggvasson set off raiding in England with 390 ships. He attacked London during this raiding. Arriving back in Norway in 995, Olav landed in Moster.[26] Sony PCG-61A13L Battery
Sony PCG-61911L BatteryThere he built a church which became the first Christian church ever built in Norway.[26] From Moster, Olav sailed north to Trondheim were he was acclaimed King of Norway by the Eyrathing in 995.[26] Sony PCG-61A14L Battery
Feudalism never really developed in Norway and Sweden, as it did in the rest of Europe.[27] However, the administration of government took on a very conservative feudal character.[27] The Hanseatic League forced the royalty to cede to them greater and greater concessions over foreign trade and the economy.[2Sony PCG-71C11L Battery
7] The League had this hold over the royalty because of the loans the Hansa had made to the royalty and the large debt the kings were carrying.[27] The League's monopolistic control over the economy of Norway put pressure on all classes, especially the peasantry, to the degree that no real burgher class existed in Norway.[27] Sony PCG-71C12L Battery
Kalmar Union[edit]
Main article: Kalmar Union
Upon the death of Haakon V, King of Norway, in 1319, Magnus Erikson, at just three years old, inherited the throne as King Magnus VII of Norway.[28] At the same time a movement to make Magnus King of Sweden proved successful.[28Sony PCG-61714L Battery
Sony PCG-61813L Battery] (At this time both the kings of Sweden and of Denmark were elected to the throne by their respective nobles.)[28] Thus, with his election to the throne of Sweden, both Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus VII.[28] Sony PCG-91211L Battery
In 1349, the Black Death radically altered Norway, killing between 50% and 60% of its population[29] and leaving it in a period of social and economic decline.[30] The plague left Norway very poor. Sony PCG-91311L Battery
Sony PCG-71318L Battery [31] Although the death rate was comparable with the rest of Europe, economic recovery took much longer because of the small, scattered population.[30] Before the plague, the population was only about 500,000 people.[32] After the plague, many farms lay idle while the population slowly increased.[30] Sony SVE141C11L Battery
Sony PCG-71317L BatteryThe few surviving farms' tenants found their bargaining positions with their landlords greatly strengthened.[30]
Kalmar Union c. 1500 AD
King Magnus VII ruled Norway until 1350, when his son, Haakon, was placed on the throne as Haakon VI.[33] In 1363, Haakon VI married Margaret, the daughter of King Valdemar IV of Denmark.[30] Upon the death of Haakon VI, in 1379, his son, Olaf IV, was only 10 years old.[30] Olaf had already been elected to the throne of Denmark on 3 May 1376.[3Sony SVE141D11L Battery
Sony PCG-71316L Battery0] Thus, upon Olaf's accession to the throne of Norway, Denmark and Norway entered personal union.[34] Olaf's mother and Haakon's widow, Queen Margaret, managed the foreign affairs of Denmark and Norway during the minority of Olaf IV.[30] Sony SVE141L11L Battery
Margaret was working toward a union of Sweden with Denmark and Norway by having Olaf elected to the Swedish throne. She was on the verge of achieving this goal when Olaf IV suddenly died.[30] However, Sony SVE151E11L Battery
Sony PCG-71315L Battery Denmark made Margaret temporary ruler upon the death of Olaf. On 2 February 1388 Norway followed suit and crowned Margaret.[30]
Queen Margaret knew that her power would be more secure if she were able to find a king to rule in her place.
Sony PCG-71313L BatteryShe settled on Eric of Pomerania, grandson of her sister. Thus at an all-Scandinavian meeting held at Kalmar, Erik of Pomerania was crowned king of all three Scandinavian countries. Sony SVE151G11L Battery
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Thus, royal politics resulted in personal unions between the Nordic countries, eventually bringing the thrones of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden under the control of Queen Margaret when the country entered into the Kalmar Union. Sony SVE151J11L Battery
Union with Denmark[edit]
Main article: Denmark–Norway
The Battle of the Sound between an allied Dano-Norwegian–Dutch fleet and the Swedish navy, 29 October 1658.
After Sweden broke out of the Kalmar Union in 1521, Norway tried to follow suit, but the ensuing rebellion was defeated, and Norway remained in a union with Denmark until 1814, a total of 436 years. During the national romanticism of the 19th century, this period was by some referred to as the "400-Year Night", Sony SVE171C11L Battery
since all of the kingdom's royal, intellectual, and administrative power was centered in Copenhagen in Denmark. In fact, it was a period of great prosperity and progress for Norway, especially in terms of shipping and foreign trade, and it also secured the country's revival from the demographic catastrophe it suffered in the Black Death. Sony SVE171E11L Battery
Sony PCG-71217L Battery Based on the respective natural resources, Denmark–Norway was in fact a very good match, since Denmark supported Norway's needs for grain and food supplies, and Norway supplied Denmark with timber, metal and fish. Sony SVE171E12L Battery
With the introduction of Protestantism in 1536, the archbishopric in Trondheim was dissolved, and Norway lost its independence, and effectually became a tributary to Denmark. The Church's incomes and possessions were instead redirected to the court in Copenhagen. Sony SVE171G112 Battery
Sony PCG-71218L Battery Norway lost the steady stream of pilgrims to the relics of St. Olav at the Nidaros shrine, and with them, much of the contact with cultural and economic life in the rest of Europe.
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Eventually restored as a kingdom (albeit in legislative union with Denmark) in 1661, Norway saw its land area decrease in the 17th century with the loss of the provinces Båhuslen, Jemtland, and Herjedalen to Sweden, as the result of number of disastrous wars with Sweden. Sony PCG-61713L Battery
In the north, however, its territory was increased by the acquisition of the northern provinces of Troms and Finnmark, at the expense of Sweden and Russia.
The famine of 1695–96 killed roughly 10% of Norway's population.[35] At least nine severe harvest failures were recorded in the Scandinavian countries between 1740 and 1800, each resulting in a substantial rise of the death rate.[36] Sony PCG-91111L Battery
Union with Sweden[edit]
Main article: Union between Sweden and Norway
The 1814 constitutional assembly, painted by Oscar Wergeland
After Denmark–Norway was attacked by the United Kingdom at the Battle of Copenhagen, it entered into an alliance with Napoleon, with the war leading to dire conditions and mass starvation in 1812. Sony PCG-91112L Battery
Sony PCG-71312L BatteryAs the Danish kingdom found itself on the losing side in 1814, it was forced, under terms of the Treaty of Kiel, to cede Norway to the king of Sweden, while the old Norwegian provinces of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands remained with the Danish crown.[37]
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Norway took this opportunity to declare independence, adopted a constitution based on American and French models, and elected the Crown Prince of Denmark and Norway, Christian Frederick, as king on 17 May 1814. Sony PCG-71212L Battery
Sony PCG-61316L Battery This is the famous Syttende Mai (Seventeenth of May) holiday celebrated by Norwegians and Norwegian-Americans alike. Syttende Mai is also called Norwegian Constitution Day.
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Norwegian opposition to the great powers' decision to link Norway with Sweden caused the Norwegian-Swedish War to break out as Sweden tried to subdue Norway by military means. As Sweden's military was not strong enough to defeat the Norwegian forces outright and Norway's treasury was not large enough to support a protracted war, and as British and Russian navies blockaded the Norwegian coast,[ Sony PCG-71215L Battery
Sony PCG-61312L Battery38] the belligerents were forced to negotiate the Convention of Moss. According to the terms of the convention, Christian Frederik abdicated the Norwegian throne and authorized the Parliament of Norway to make the necessary constitutional amendments to allow for the personal union that Norway was forced to accept. Sony PCG-71216L Battery
Sony PCG-61311L BatteryOn 4 November 1814 the Parliament (Storting) elected Charles XIII of Sweden as king of Norway, thereby establishing the union with Sweden.[39] Under this arrangement, Norway kept its liberal constitution and its own independent institutions, except for the foreign service. Sony PCG-61211L Battery
Sony PCG-61215L BatteryFollowing the recession caused by the Napoleonic Wars, economic development of Norway remained slow until economic growth began around 1830.[40]
This period also saw the rise of the Norwegian romantic nationalism, as Norwegians sought to define and express a distinct national character. Sony PCG-3B1L Battery
The movement covered all branches of culture, including literature (Henrik Wergeland [1808–1845], Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson [1832–1910], Peter Christen Asbjørnsen [1812–1845], Jørgen Moe [1813–1882]), painting (Hans Gude [1825–1903], Adolph Tidemand [1814–1876]), music (Edvard Grieg [1843–1907]), Sony PCG-3B2L Battery
Sony PCG-3B3L Battery
Sony PCG-3H4L Batteryand even language policy, where attempts to define a native written language for Norway led to today's two official written forms for Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk.
Harvesting of oats in Jølster, c. 1890.
(Photo: Axel Lindahl/Norwegian Museum of Cultural History)
King Charles III John, who came to the throne of Norway and Sweden in 1818, was the second king following Norway's break from Denmark and the union with Sweden. Charles John was a complex man whose long reign extended to 1844. Sony PCG-3B4L Battery
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He protected the constitution and liberties of Norway and Sweden during the age of Metternich. As such, he was regarded as a liberal monarch for that age. However, he was ruthless in his use of paid informers, the secret police and restrictions on the freedom of the press to put down public movements for reform—especially the Norwegian national independence movement.[41]
A Sami (Lapp) family in Norway around 1900.
The Romantic Era that followed the reign of King Charles III John brought some significant social and political reforms. In 1854, women were given the right to inherit property in their own right just like men.[42Sony PCG-3C3L Battery
] In 1863, the last trace of keeping unmarried women in the status of minors was removed.[42] Furthermore, women were then eligible for different occupations, particularly the common school teacher.[4
Sony PCG-3H2L Battery2] However, by mid-century, Norway was still far from a "democracy". Voting was limited to officials, property owners, leaseholders, and burghers of incorporated towns.[43] There was some dissatisfaction with this backwardness. Sony PCG-3D3L Battery
Still Norway remained a conservative society. Life in Norway (especially economic life) was "dominated by the aristocracy of professional men who filled most of the important posts in the central government."[44] Sony PCG-3D4L Battery
There was no strong bourgeosie class in Norway to demand a breakdown of this aristocratic control of the economy.[45] Thus, even while revolution swept over most of the countries of Europe in 1848, Norway was largely unaffected by revolts that year. Most revolts broke themselves on the granite conservativism of the Norwegian society.[4Sony PCG-3E3L Battery
5] Indeed, the Thrane movement was the only "revolt" that broke out in Norway in 1848.
Marcus Thrane was a Utopian socialist.[46] He made his appeal to the labouring classes urging a change of social structure "from below upwards."[4Sony PCG-3F1L Battery
Sony PCG-3H1L Battery6] In 1848, he organized a labour society in Drammen. In just a few months this society had a membership of 500 and the society was publishing its own newspaper.[46] Within two years 300 societies had been organized all over Norway with a total membership of 20,000 persons.[46]
Sony PCG-3G5L Battery The membership was drawn from the lower classes of both the town and country.[46] For the first time these two groups felt they had common cause with each other.[46] In the end, the revolt was easily crushed, Sony PCG-3F2L Battery
Sony PCG-3G3L Battery Thrane was captured and sentenced to three years in jail for crimes against the safety of the state. Upon his release from jail, after serving his sentence, Marcus Thrane migrated to the United States of America. Sony PCG-3F3L Battery
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In 1898, all men were granted universal suffrage, followed by all women in 1913.
Independence[edit]
Main article: Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905
Christian Michelsen, a shipping magnate and statesman, and Prime Minister of Norway from 1905 to 1907, played a central role in the peaceful separation of Norway from Sweden on 7 June 1905.
Sony PCG-3B1L BatteryAfter a national referendum confirmed the people's preference for a monarchy over a republic, the Norwegian government offered the throne of Norway to Prince Carl of Denmark, and Parliament unanimously elected him king, the first king of a fully independent Norway in 586 years. He took the name of Haakon VII, after the medieval kings of independent Norway. Sony PCG-9Z1L Battery
World War I and II[edit]
See also: Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany and Free Norwegian Forces
Scenes from the Norwegian Campaign in 1940
During World War I, Norway was a neutral country. In reality, however, Norway had been pressured by the United Kingdom to hand over increasingly large parts of its massive merchant fleet to the UK at low rates, as well as to join the trade blockade against Germany. Sony PCG-9Z2L Battery
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Sony PCG-8151L Battery [citation needed] Norwegian merchant marine ships with Norwegian sailors were then required to sail under the British flag and risk being sunk by German submarines.[47] Thus, many Norwegian sailors and ships were lost.[47] Thereafter, the world ranking of the Norwegian merchant marine fell from fourth place in the world to sixth place in the world.[47] Sony PCG-7151L Battery
Norway also proclaimed its neutrality during World War II, but Norway was invaded by German forces on 9 April 1940. Norway was unprepared for the German surprise attack (see: Battle of Drøbak Sound, Norwegian Campaign, Sony PCG-7152L Battery
and Invasion of Norway), but military and naval resistance lasted for two months. The armed forces in the north launched an offensive against the German forces in the Battles of Narvik, until they were forced to surrender on 10 June after losing British help diverted to France during the German Invasion of France. Sony PCG-7153L Battery
Norwegian air force men in the United Kingdom during World War II.
King Haakon and the Norwegian government escaped to Rotherhithe, in London, England, and they supported the fight through inspirational radio speeches from London and by supporting clandestine military actions in Norway against the Nazis. Sony PCG-7154L Battery
Sony PCG-8141L Battery On the day of the invasion, the collaborative leader of the small National-Socialist party Nasjonal Samling, Vidkun Quisling, tried to seize power but was forced by the German occupiers to step aside. Real power was wielded by the leader of the German occupation authority, Reichskommissar Josef Terboven. Sony PCG-7161L Battery
Sony PCG-8131L BatteryQuisling, as minister president, later formed a collaborationist government under German control. Up to 15,000 Norwegians volunteered to fight in German units, including the Waffen-SS.[48]
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There were also many Norwegians, and those of Norwegian descent, who joined the Allied forces as well as the Free Norwegian Forces. From the small group that had left Norway in June 1940 consisting of 13 ships, Sony PCG-7162L Battery
Sony PCG-7184L Batteryfive aircraft and 500 men from the Royal Norwegian Navy who followed the King to the United Kingdom the force had grown by the end of the war to 58 ships and 7,500 men in service in the Norwegian Navy; Sony PCG-7171L Battery
Sony PCG-7183L Battery 5 squadrons of aircraft (including Spitfires, Sunderland flying boats and Mosquitos) in the newly formed Norwegian Air Force; and land forces including the Norwegian Independent Company 1 and 5 Troop as well as No. 10 Commandos. Sony PCG-7172L Battery
During the five years of Nazi occupation, Norwegians built a resistance movement which fought the German occupation forces with both civil disobedience and armed resistance including the destruction of Norsk Hydro's heavy water plant and stockpile of heavy water at Vemork, which crippled the German nuclear program (see: Norwegian heavy water sabotage). Sony PCG-7173L Battery
Sony PCG-7182L Battery More important to the Allied war effort, however, was the role of the Norwegian Merchant Marine. At the time of the invasion, Norway had the fourth largest merchant marine fleet in the world.[citation needed] Sony PCG-7174L Battery
Sony PCG-7181L Battery It was led by the Norwegian shipping company Nortraship under the Allies throughout the war and took part in every war operation from the evacuation of Dunkirk to the Normandy landings. Sony PCG-71111L Battery
Sony PCG-81411L Battery Each December Norway gives a Christmas tree to the United Kingdom as thanks for the British assistance during World War II. A ceremony takes place to erect the tree in London's Trafalgar Square.[49] Sony PCG-81111L Battery
Post-war history[edit]
From 1945 to 1962, the Labour Party held an absolute majority in the parliament. The government, led by prime minister Einar Gerhardsen, embarked on a program inspired by Keynesian economics, emphasizing state financed industrialization, cooperation between trade unions and employers' organizations. Sony PCG-81112L Battery
Sony PCG-81314L Battery Many measures of state control of the economy imposed during the war were continued, although the rationing of dairy products was lifted in 1949, while price control and rationing of housing and cars continued as long as until 1960. Sony PCG-81113L Battery
The wartime alliance with the United Kingdom and the United States was continued in the post-war years. Although pursuing the goal of a socialist economy, the Labour Party distanced itself from the communists
Sony PCG-81313L Battery (especially after the communists' seizure of power in Czechoslovakia in 1948), and strengthened its foreign policy and defence policy ties with the US. Norway received Marshall Plan aid from the United States starting in 1947, joined the OEEC one year later and became a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. Sony PCG-81114L Battery
Town Hall Square in Oslo filled with people with roses mourning the victims of Utøya massacre, 25 July 2011
Around 1975, both the proportion and absolute number of workers in industry peaked. Since then labour-intensive industries and services like factory mass production and shipping have largely been outsourced. Sony PCG-81214L Battery
In 1969, the Phillips Petroleum Company discovered petroleum resources at the Ekofisk field west of Norway. In 1973, the Norwegian government founded the State oil company, Statoil. Oil production did not provide net income until the early 1980s because of the large capital investment that was required to establish the country's petroleum industry. Sony PCG-81311L Battery
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Norway was a founding member of the European Free Trade Area (EFTA). Two referendums on joining the European Union failed by narrow margins in 1972 and 1994.[5Dell XPS 14 Battery
Dell XPS L701X Battery0] In 1981, a Conservative government led by Kåre Willoch replaced the Labour Party with a policy of stimulating the stagflated economy with tax cuts, economic liberalization, deregulation of markets, and measures to curb record-high inflation (13.6% in 1981). Dell XPS 14D Battery
Norway's first female prime minister, Gro Harlem Brundtland of the Labour party, continued many of the reforms of her right-wing predecessor, while backing traditional Labour concerns such as social security, high taxes, the industrialization of nature, Dell XPS 14D-L401X Battery
Dell XPS L502X Batteryand feminism. By the late 1990s, Norway had paid off its foreign debt and had started accumulating a sovereign wealth fund. Since the 1990s, a divisive question in politics has been how much of the income from petroleum production the government should spend, and how much it should save. Dell XPS 15 Battery
In 2011 Norway suffered a pair of devastating attacks conducted by Anders Behring Breivik which struck the government quarter in Oslo and a summer camp of the Labour party's youth movement at Utøya island, resulting in 77 deaths and 96 wounded. Dell XPS 15D Battery
Geography[edit]
Main articles: Geography of Norway and Geology of Norway
A satellite image of continental Norway in winter
Norway comprises the western part of Scandinavia in Northern Europe. The rugged coastline, broken by huge fjords and thousands of islands, stretches 25,000 kilometres (16,000 mi) and 83,000 kilometres (52,000 mi) and include fjords and islands. Dell XPS 15-L501X Battery
Norway shares a 1,619-kilometre (1,006 mi) land border with Sweden, 727 kilometres (452 mi) with Finland and 196 kilometres (122 mi) with Russia to the east. To the north, west and south, Norway is bordered by the Barents Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea and Skagerrak.[2]
Norwegian lowland landscape near the Gaulosen branch of Trondheimsfjord
Reine in Lofoten, Northern Norway
At 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) (including Svalbard and Jan Mayen) (and 323,802 square kilometres (125,021 sq mi) without), much of the country is dominated by mountainous or high terrain, with a great variety of natural features caused by prehistoric glaciers and varied topography. The most noticeable of these are the fjords: Dell XPS 15-L502X Battery
Dell XPS 17-L701X Battery deep grooves cut into the land flooded by the sea following the end of the Ice Age. The longest is Sognefjorden at 204 kilometres (127 mi). Sognefjorden is the world's second deepest fjord, and the world's longest. Hornindalsvatnet is the deepest lake in all Europe.[51] Frozen ground can be found all year in the higher mountain areas and in the interior of Finnmark county. Numerous glaciers are found in Norway. Dell XPS 17 Battery
Norway lies between latitudes 57° and 81° N, and longitudes 4° and 32° E.
The land is mostly made of hard granite and gneiss rock, but slate, sandstone and limestone are also common, and the lowest elevations contain marine deposits. Dell Inspiron 14V Battery
Because of the Gulf Stream and prevailing westerlies, Norway experiences higher temperatures and more precipitation than expected at such northern latitudes, especially along the coast. The mainland experiences four distinct seasons, Dell Inspiron N4030 Battery
Dell Inspiron 14R Batterywith colder winters and less precipitation inland. The northernmost part has a mostly maritime Subarctic climate, while Svalbard has an Arctic tundra climate.
Because of the large latitudinal range of the country and the varied topography and climate, Norway has a larger number of different habitats than almost any other European country. Dell Inspiron N7110 Battery
Dell Inspiron 13R Battery There are approximately 60,000 species in Norway and adjacent waters (excluding bacteria and virus). The Norwegian Shelf large marine ecosystem is considered highly productive.[52] Dell Inspiron N7010R Battery
Climate[edit]
The southern and western parts of Norway experience more precipitation and have milder winters than the south-eastern part. The lowlands around Oslo have the warmest and sunniest summers but also cold weather and snow in wintertime (especially inland). Dell Inspiron N7010D Battery
Because of Norway's high latitude, there are large seasonal variations in daylight. From late May to late July, the sun never completely descends beneath the horizon in areas north of the Arctic Circle (hence Norway's description as the "Land of the Midnight Sun"), Dell Inspiron N5110 Battery
Dell Inspiron N5010 Batteryand the rest of the country experiences up to 20 hours of daylight per day. Conversely, from late November to late January, the sun never rises above the horizon in the north, and daylight hours are very short in the rest of the country. Dell Inspiron N5030 Battery
Biodiversity[edit]
Lake Bondhus.
The total number of species include 16,000 species of insects (probably 4,000 more species yet to be described), 20,000 species of algae, 1,800 species of lichen, 1,050 species of mosses, 2,800 species of vascular plants, up to 7,000 species of fungi, Dell Inspiron N5010R Battery
Dell Inspiron 15R Battery450 species of birds (250 species nesting in Norway), 90 species of mammals, 45 fresh-water species of fish, 150 salt-water species of fish, 1,000 species of fresh-water invertebrates and 3,500 species of salt-water invertebrates.[53] Dell Inspiron N3010R Battery
Dell Inspiron 17R BatteryAbout 40,000 of these species have been described by science. The red list of 2010 encompasses 4,599 species.[54]
Seventeen species are listed mainly because they are endangered on a global scale, such as the European beaver, even if the population in Norway is not seen as endangered. The number of threatened and near-threatened species equals to 3,682; Dell Inspiron N3010 Battery
Dell Inspiron N7010 Battery it includes 418 fungi species, many of which are closely associated with the small remaining areas of old-growth forests,[55] 36 bird species, and 16 species of mammals. In 2010, 2,398 species were listed as endangered or vulnerable; of these were 1250 listed as vulnerable (VU), 871 as endangered (EN), Dell Inspiron N4010 Battery
Dell Inspiron N4010R Batteryand 276 species as critically endangered (CR), among which were the gray wolf, the Arctic fox (healthy population on Svalbard) and the pool frog.[54]
The largest predator in Norwegian waters is the sperm whale, and the largest fish is the basking shark. Dell Latitude E4200 Battery
The largest predator on land is the polar bear, while the brown bear is the largest predator on the Norwegian mainland, where the common moose (also known as the "European Elk") is the largest animal. Dell Latitude E4300 Battery
Environment[edit]
Stunning and dramatic scenery and landscape is found throughout Norway. The west coast of southern Norway and the coast of northern Norway present some of the most visually impressive coastal sceneries in the world. National Geographic has listed the Norwegian fjords as the world's top tourist attraction.[5Dell Latitude E4310 Battery
Dell Latitude E6530 Battery6] The 2012 Environmental Performance Index put Norway in third place, based on the environmental performance of the country's policies.
Harald V, the King of Norway since 1991
According to the Constitution of Norway, which was adopted on 16 May 1814[57] and inspired by the United States Declaration of Independence and French Revolution of 1776 and 1789, respectively, Dell Latitude E5400 Battery
Dell Latitude E6520N Battery Norway is a unitary constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government, wherein the King of Norway is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government. Power is separated between the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government, as defined by the Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. Dell Latitude E5420 Battery
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The Monarch officially retains executive power. However, following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government, the duties of the Monarch have since become strictly representative and ceremonial,[ Dell Latitude E5500 Battery
Dell Latitude E6430 ATG Battery58] such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other ministers in the executive government. Accordingly, the Monarch is commander-in-chief of the Norwegian armed forces, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad and a as symbol of unity. Dell Latitude E5520 Battery
In practice, it is the Prime Minister who is responsible for the exercise of executive powers. Since his accession in 1991, Harald V of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg has been King of Norway, the first since the 14th century who has actually been born in the country.[59Dell Latitude E6120 Battery
Dell Latitude E5530 Battery] Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway, is the legal and rightful heir to the throne and the Kingdom.
The Storting is the Parliament of Norway
Constitutionally, legislative power is vested with both the government and the Parliament of Norway, but the latter is the supreme legislature and a unicameral body.[60] A proposition can become a law or an act by simple majority among the 150 representatives, Dell Latitude E6220 Battery
Dell Latitude E5430 Batterywho are elected on the basis of proportional representation from 19 constituencies for four-year terms. An additional 19 seats ("levelling seats") are allocated on a nationwide basis to make the representation in parliament correspond better with the popular vote. Dell Latitude E6320 Battery
As a result, there are currently 169 Members of Parliament altogether. There is also a 4% election threshold to gain levelling seats in Parliament.[61] As such, Norway is fundamentally structured as a representative democracy. Dell Latitude E6400 Battery
Dell Latitude E5520 Battery The Parliament of Norway, called the Stortinget (meaning Grand Assembly), is where Members ratify treaties and can impeach members of the government if their acts are declared unconstitutional, and as such have the power to remove them from office in case of an impeachment trial. Dell Latitude E6410 Battery
Jens Stoltenberg, the Prime Minister of Norway since 2005
The position of Prime Minister, Norway's head of government, is allocated to the Member of Parliament who can obtain the confidence of a majority in Parliament, usually the current leader of the largest political party or more effectively through a coalition of parties, Dell Latitude E6420 Battery
as a single party normally does not have the support to form a government on its own. However, Norway has often been ruled by minority governments.
The Prime Minister nominates the Cabinet, traditionally drawn from members of the same political party in the Storting, to which they are responsible, and as such forms the executive government and exercises power vested to them by the Constitution.[6Dell Latitude E6420 ATG Battery
Dell Latitude E6230 Battery2] In order to form a government, however, more than half the membership of the Cabinet is required to belong to the Church of Norway. Currently, this means at least ten out of the 19 ministries. This has caused controversy regarding the continuing debate of separation of church and state in Norway. The current Prime Minister is Jens Stoltenberg, the leader of the Norwegian Labour Party (AP). Dell Latitude E6500 Battery
Royal Palace of Norway in Oslo
Through the Council of State, a privy council presided over by the Monarch, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet meet at the Royal Palace and formally consult the Monarch. Besides enacting parliamentary bills, all government bills need the formal approval by the Monarch before and after introduction to Parliament. Dell Latitude E6510 Battery
Dell Latitude E6410 ATG Battery Approval is also given by the Council to all of the Monarch's actions as head of state. Although all government and parliamentary acts are decided beforehand, the privy council is an example of another symbolic gesture the King obtains.[59] Dell Latitude E6520 Battery
Members of the Storting are directly elected from party-lists proportional representation in nineteen plural-member constituencies in a national multi-party system.[63] Historically, both the Norwegian Labour Party and Conservative Party have played leading political roles, Dell Latitude E6400 ATG Battery
Dell Latitude E6400 XFR Battery while the former has remained in power since the 2005 election, in a Red-Green Coalition with the Socialist Left Party and the Centre Party.[64] Sony PCG-4R2M battery
Since then, both the Conservative Party and the Progress Party have won a great number of seats in the Parliament, but, since the 2009 general election, not sufficient enough to overthrow the coalition. This has been the result of poor co-operation between the opposition parties,
including the Liberal Party and the Christian Democratic Party. As such, Jens Stoltenberg, the leader of the Labour Party, remains Prime Minister of Norway with the necessary majority attributed to the alliance with the Socialist Left and Centre parties.[65] Sony VGP-BPL11 Battery
Administrative divisions[edit]
Main articles: Administrative divisions of Norway, Counties of Norway, Municipalities of Norway, List of towns and cities in Norway, and Dependencies of Norway Sony PCG-4R2M battery
Norway, a unitary state, is divided into nineteen first-level administrative counties (fylker). The counties are administrated through directly elected county assemblies who elect the County Governor. Additionally,
Sony VGP-BPS21B Batterythe King and government are represented in every county by a fylkesmann, who effectively acts as a Governor.[66] As such, the Government is directly represented at a local level through the County Governors' offices. Sony VGP-BPL12 Battery
Sony VGP-BPS21A BatteryThe counties are then sub-divided into 430 second-level municipalities (kommuner), which in turn are administrated by directly elected municipal council, headed by a mayor and a small executive cabinet. The capital of Oslo is considered both a county and a municipality. Norway also has two integral overseas territories, Sony VGP-BPL13 Battery
Jan Mayen and Svalbard. There are three Antarctic and Subantarctic dependencies: Bouvet Island, Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land.
In addition, there are 96 settlements with city status in Norway. In most cases, the city borders are coterminous with the borders of their respective municipalities. Often, Norwegian city municipalities include large areas that are not built up; Sony VGP-BPL14/B Battery
Sony VGP-BPS21 Battery for example, Oslo municipality contains large forests, located north and south-east of the city, and over half of Bergen municipality consists of mountainous areas.[citation needed] Sony VGP-BPL14B Battery
Norway uses a civil law system where laws are created and amended in Parliament and the system regulated through the Courts of Justice of Norway. It consists of the Supreme Court of 19 permanent judges and a Chief Justice, appellate courts, city and district courts, and conciliation councils.[67]
Sony VGP-BPS15/S BatteryThe judiciary is independent of executive and legislative branches. While the Prime Minister nominates Supreme Court Justices for office, their nomination must be approved by Parliament and formally confirmed by the Monarch in the Council of State.
Sony VGP-BPS15/B Battery Usually, judges attached to regular courts are formally appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister.
The Courts' strict and formal mission is to regulate the Norwegian judicial system, interpret the Constitution, and as such implement the legislation adopted by Parliament and monitor the legislative and executive powers to ensure that they themselves comply with the acts of legislation that have been previously adopted.[67] Sony VGP-BPL15 Battery
The law is enforced in Norway by the Norwegian Police Service, which is a Unified National Police Service made up of 27 Police Districts and several specialist agencies, such as Økokrim and the National Criminal Investigation Service, each headed by a chief of police. The Police Service is headed by the National Police Directorate, Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery
Sony VGP-BPS14/S Batterywhich in turn is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police. The Police Directorate is headed by a National Police Commissioner. The only exception is the Norwegian Police Security Agency who answers directly to the Ministry of Justice and the Police.
Reporters Without Borders, Sony VGP-BPL21 Battery
Sony VGP-BPS14B Batteryin its 2007 Worldwide Press Freedom Index, ranked Norway at a shared first place (with Iceland) out of 169 countries.[68] The death penalty was abolished in Norway in 1902. The death penalty for high treason in war and war-crimes was also abolished in 1979.
Foreign relations[edit]
Main article: Foreign relations of Norway
See also: Norway and the European Union and Whaling in Norway
Royal Norwegian Navy Fridtjof Nansen class frigate
Norway maintains embassies in 86 countries.[69] 60 countries maintain an embassy in Norway, all of them in the capital, Oslo.
Norway is a founding member of the United Nations (UN), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Council of Europe and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Norway issued applications for accession to the European Union (EU) and its predecessors in 1962, Sony VGP-BPS10 Battery
Sony VGP-BPS14/B Battery 1967 and 1992, respectively. While Denmark, Sweden and Finland obtained membership, the treaties of accession were rejected by the Norwegian electorate in 1972 and 1994. After the 1994 referendum, Norway maintained its membership in the European Economic Area (EEA),
Sony VGP-BPS14 Battery an arrangement granting the country access to the internal market of the Union, on the condition that Norway implements those of the Union's pieces of legislation which are deemed relevant (of which there were approximately seven thousand by 2010)[70] Successive Norwegian governments have, since 1994, Sony VGP-BPS11 Battery
Sony VGP-BSP13/S Battery requested Norway's participation in parts of the EU's cooperation which go beyond the provisions of the EEA agreement. Non-voting participation by Norway has been granted in for instance the Union's Common Security and Defence Policy, the Schengen Agreement, the European Defence Agency as well as 19 separate programmes.[7Sony VGP-BPS12 Battery
1]
Norway has made a contribution in international development, and was involved in the 1990s brokering which lead to the ill-fated Oslo Accords regarding the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
Military[edit]
Main article: Norwegian Armed Forces
Norwegian Leopard tanks in the snow in Målselv
The Norwegian Armed Forces currently numbers about 23,000 personnel, including civilian employees. According to mobilization plans in 2009, the strength during full mobilization is approximately 83,000 combatant personnel. Norway has conscription (6–12 months of training);[72] in 2013,
Sony VGP-BPS13/Q Battery the country became the first in Europe and NATO to draft women as well as men. However, due to less need for conscipts after the Cold War ended, few people have to serve if they are not motivated.[73 Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery
Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q Battery] The Armed Forces are subordinate to the Norwegian Ministry of Defence and the Commander-in-Chief is King Harald V.[citation needed] The military of Norway is divided into the following branches: the Army, the Royal Navy, the Royal Air Force and the Home Guard.
Partly due to Norway's inability to maintain its traditional policy of neutrality in World War II (joining the Allied war effort after being invaded by Nazi Germany in April 1940), the country was one of the founding nations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 4 April 1949.
Sony VGP-BPS13/B BatteryAt present, Norway contributes in the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan.[74] Additionally, Norway has contributed in several missions in contexts of the United Nations, NATO, and the Common Security and Defence Policy of the European Union. Sony VGP-BPS13A Battery
Economy[edit]
Main articles: Economy of Norway, Energy in Norway, and European Economic Area
Graphical depiction of Norway's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories.
GDP and GDP growth
Norwegians enjoy the second highest GDP per-capita (after Luxembourg) and fourth highest GDP (PPP) per-capita in the world. Today, Norway ranks as the second wealthiest country in the world in monetary value, with the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation.[75] According to the CIA World Factbook, Norway is a net external creditor of debt.[2Sony VGP-BPS13A/B Battery
Sony VGP-BPS13B/B Battery] Norway maintained first place in the world in the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) for six consecutive years (2001–2006),[7] and then reclaimed this position in 2009 and 2010.[16]
Sony SVS1511W9EB battery The standard of living in Norway is among the highest in the world. Foreign Policy Magazine ranks Norway last in its Failed States Index for 2009, judging Norway to be the world's most well-functioning and stable country. Sony vgp-bps24 battery
Sony SVS1511V9ES battery Continued oil and gas exports coupled with a healthy economy and substantial accumulated wealth lead to a conclusion that Norway will remain among the richest countries in the world in the foreseeable future. Sony vgp-bpsc24 battery
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The Norwegian economy is an example of a mixed economy, a prosperous capitalist welfare state featuring a combination of free market activity and large state ownership in certain key sectors. The Norwegian welfare state makes public health care free (above a certain level), and parents have 46 weeks paid[7Sony SVS15 battery
Sony VPCSA2Z9E battery
Sony SVS1511V9EB battery6] parental leave. The income that the state receives from natural resources includes a significant contribution from petroleum production and the substantial and carefully managed income related to this sector. Norway has a very low unemployment rate, currently 2.6%.[77
Sony SVS1511T9ES battery] 30% of the labour force are employed by the government, the highest in the OECD.[78] The hourly productivity levels, as well as average hourly wages in Norway are among the highest in the world.[79][80Sony SVE171A11M battery
Sony SVS1511N3ES battery] The egalitarian values of the Norwegian society ensure that the wage difference between the lowest paid worker and the CEO of most companies is much smaller than in comparable western economies.[8Sony SVE151C11M battery
Sony SVS1511M3EW battery1] This is also evident in Norway's low Gini coefficient. The state has large ownership positions in key industrial sectors, such as the strategic petroleum sector (Statoil and Aker Solutions), hydroelectric energy production (Statkraft), aluminium production (Norsk Hydro), the largest Norwegian bank (DnB NOR), Sony SVE1711T1EB battery
Sony SVS1511L3ES battery and telecommunication provider (Telenor). Through these big companies, the government controls approximately 30% of the stock values at the Oslo Stock Exchange. When non-listed companies are included, the state has even higher share in ownership (mainly from direct oil license ownership). Sony SVE1711K1EW battery
Sony SVS1311P9EB battery Norway is a major shipping nation and has the world's 6th largest merchant fleet, with 1,412 Norwegian-owned merchant vessels.
Bryggen in Bergen is on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Referendums in 1972 and 1994 indicated that the Norwegian people wished to remain outside the European Union (EU). However, Sony SVE1711V1EB battery
Sony SVS1311E3EW batteryNorway, together with Iceland and Liechtenstein, participates in the European Union's single market through the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement. The EEA Treaty between the European Union countries and the EFTA countries– transposed into Norwegian law via "EØS-loven"[Sony SVE1711X1EB battery
Sony SVS151A12M battery82]– describes the procedures for implementing European Union rules in Norway and the other EFTA countries. This makes Norway a highly integrated member of most sectors of the EU internal market. However, some sectors, such as agriculture, oil and fish, are not wholly covered by the EEA Treaty. Sony SVE1511G1EW battery
Sony SVS151A11M battery Norway has also acceded to the Schengen Agreement and several other intergovernmental agreements between the EU member states.
Agriculture is a significant sector, in spite of the mountainous landscape (Flakstad)
The country is richly endowed with natural resources including petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals. Large reserves of petroleum and natural gas were discovered in the 1960s, which led to a boom in the economy. Sony SVE1511G1ESI battery
Sony SVS131B12M batteryNorway has obtained one of the highest standards of living in the world in part by having a large amount of natural resources compared to the size of the population. In 2011, 28% of state revenues were generated from the petroleum industry.[83]
Resources[edit]
Sony SVS13AA11M battery
Export revenues from oil and gas have risen to almost 50% of total exports and constitute more than 20% of the GDP.[84] Norway is the fifth largest oil exporter and third largest gas exporter in the world, but it is not a member of OPEC. To reduce overheating in the economy from oil revenues and minimize uncertainty from volatility in oil price, Sony SVE1511G1EB battery
Sony SVS13A1U9ES battery and to provide a cushion for the effect of aging of the population, the Norwegian government in 1995 established the sovereign wealth fund ("Government Pension Fund — Global"), which would be funded with oil revenues, including taxes, dividends, sales revenues and licensing fees. Sony SVE1511S1EW battery
Oil production has been central to the Norwegian economy since the 1970s, with a dominating state ownership (Statfjord oil field)
The government controls its petroleum resources through a combination of state ownership in major operators in the oil fields (with approximately 62% ownership in Statoil in 2007) and the fully state-owned Petoro,
Sony VPCCA2S1E batterywhich has a market value of about twice Statoil, and SDFI. Finally, the government controls licensing of exploration and production of fields. The fund invests in developed financial markets outside Norway. The budgetary rule ("Handlingsregelen") is to spend no more than 4% of the fund each year (assumed to be the normal yield from the fund).
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In March 2011, the Government Pension Fund controlled assets were valued at approximately US$570 billion (equal to US$114,000 per capita) which is about 140% of Norway's current GDP. It is the second-largest state-owned sovereign wealth fund, Sony SVE1511S1ESI battery
Sony VPCCB3M1E batterysecond only to the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority; Conservative estimates tell that the fund may reach US$800–900 billion by 2017. Projections indicate that the Norwegian pension fund may become the largest capital fund in the world.[citation needed] Sony SVE1511S1EB battery
Sony VPCCA4S1E battery The fund controls approximately 1.25% of all listed shares in Europe and more than 1% of all the publicly traded shares in the world.[citation needed] The Norwegian Central Bank operates investment offices in London, Sony SVE1511B1EW battery
Sony SVE1511H1EW battery
New York and Shanghai. Guidelines implemented in 2007 allow the fund to invest up to 60% of the capital in shares (maximum of 40% prior), while the rest may be placed in bonds and real-estate. As the stock markets tumbled in September 2008, Sony SVE1511H1ESI battery
Sony SVE1511J1EW batterythe fund was able to buy more shares at low prices. In this way, the losses incurred by the market turmoil was recuperated by November 2009.
Stockfish has been exported from Lofoten in Norway for at least 1,000 years
Other natural resource-based economies, such as Russia, are trying to learn from Norway by establishing similar funds. The investment choices of the Norwegian fund are directed by ethical guidelines; for example,
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the fund is not allowed to invest in companies that produce parts for nuclear weapons. The highly transparent investment scheme is lauded by the international community.
The future size of the fund is of course closely linked to the price of oil and to developments in international financial markets. Sony SVS1511M3EW battery
The Norwegian trade surplus for 2008 reached approximately US$80 billion. With an enormous amount of cash invested in international financial markets, Norway has financial muscles to avert many of the worst effects of the financial crisis that hit most countries in the fall of 2008. As most western countries struggle with burgeoning foreign debt, Sony SVS1511N3ES battery
Sony PCG-41214M battery Norway remains a nation of stowed-away wealth, financial stability and economic power to meet the challenges of the worldwide economic crisis. In spite of the crisis, Norway still runs a 9% state budget surplus, being the only western country to run a surplus in July 2009. Sony SVS1511T9ES battery
In 2000, the government sold one-third of the state-owned oil company Statoil in an IPO. The next year, the main telecom supplier, Telenor, was listed on Oslo Stock Exchange. The state also owns significant shares of Norway's largest bank, Sony SVS1511V9EB battery
Sony SVS1511V9ES battery
DnB NOR and the airline SAS. Since 2000, economic growth has been rapid, pushing unemployment down to levels not seen since the early 1980s (unemployment in 2007: 1.3%). The international financial crisis has primarily affected the industrial sector, but unemployment has remained low and is at 3.3% (86 000 people) in August 2011. Sony SVS1511W9EB battery
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Norway is among the least affected countries of the international economic downturn. Neighbouring Sweden is experiencing substantially higher actual and projected unemployment numbers as a result of the ongoing recession, Sony VPCSB4S9E battery
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and in the 1st quarter of 2009 the GNP of Norway surpassed Sweden's for the first time in history, despite a population numbering about half of Sweden's.
Norway is also the world's second largest exporter of fish (in value, after China)[8Sony VPCZ13 battery
Sony VGP-BPS20 battery5] and the 6th largest arms exporter in the world.[86][87] Hydroelectric plants generate roughly 98–99% of Norway's electric power, more than any other country in the world.[88] Sony VPCSE2V9E battery
Transport[edit]
Main articles: Transport in Norway, Rail transport in Norway, and List of airports in Norway
Due to the low population density, narrow shape and long coastlines, public transport in Norway is less developed than in many European countries, Sony VPCZ13M9E/B battery
Sony VPCZ23N9E batteryespecially outside the cities. As such, Norway has old water transport traditions, but the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications has in recent years implemented rail, road and air transport through numerous subsidiaries in order to develop the country's infrastructure.[89Sony VPCZ13V9E battery
Sony VPCZ21V9E battery] Most recently there has been discussion of the possibility of creating a new high-speed rail system between the nation's largest cities.[90][91]
NSB type 73 at Oslo Central Station, the largest railway station in the country
Norway's main railway network consists of 4,114 kilometres (2,556 mi) of standard gauge lines, of which 242 kilometres (150 mi) Sony VPCZ13Z9E/X battery
Sony VPCZ12Z9E/X battery is double track and 64 kilometres (40 mi) high-speed rail (210 km/h) while 62% is electrified at 15 kV 16⅔ Hz AC. The railways transported 56,827,000 passengers 2,956 million passenger kilometres and 24,783,000 tonnes of cargo 3,414 million tonne kilometres.[92] The entire network is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration,[9Sony VPCZ21Q9E battery
Sony VPCZ12Z9E/B battery3] while all domestic passenger trains except the Airport Express Train are operated by Norges Statsbaner (NSB).[94] Several companies operate freight trains.[95]
Investment in new infrastructure and maintenance is financed through the state budget,[93] and subsidies are provided for passenger train operations.[96] Sony VPCZ23K9E battery
Sony VPCZ12X9E/B batteryNSB operates long-haul trains, including night trains, regional services and four commuter train systems, around Oslo, Trondheim, Bergen and Stavanger.[97]
Norwegian and Scandinavian aircraft at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen
There are approximately 92,946 kilometres (57,754 mi) of road network in Norway, of which 72,033 kilometres (44,759 mi) are paved and 664 kilometres (413 mi) are motorway.[2] There are four tiers of road routes; national, Sony VGP-BPL20 battery
Sony VPCZ12V9E/B batterycounty, municipal and private, with only the national roads numbered en route. The most important national routes are part of the European route scheme, and the two most prominent are the E6 going north-south through the entire country, while E39 follows the West Coast. National and county roads are managed by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration.[98]
Of the 97 airports in Norway,[2] 52 are public,[99] and 46 are operated by the state-owned Avinor.[100] Seven airports have more than one million passengers annually.[99] 41,089,675 passengers passed through Norwegian airports in 2007, of which 13,397,458 were international.[99] Sony VGP-BPS20/B battery
The central gateway by air to Norway is Oslo Airport, Gardermoen,[99] located about 50 kilometres (31 mi) north of Oslo with departures to most European countries and some intercontinental destinations.[101][1Sony VGP-BPS20/S battery
Sony VPCZ12M9E/B battery02] It is hub for the two major Norwegian airlines Scandinavian Airlines System[103] and Norwegian Air Shuttle,[104] and for regional aircraft from Western Norway.
The Sami people traditionally inhabit central and northern parts of Norway and Sweden, as well as in northern Finland and in Russia on the Kola Peninsula. Another national minority are the Kven people who are the descendants of Finnish speaking people that moved to northern Norway in the 18th up to the 20th century. [105] Sony VPCZ11 battery
Sony VPCZ12C7E/B battery Both the Sami and the Kven were subjected to a strong assimilation policy by the Norwegian government from the 19th century up to the 1970s.[108] Because of this "Norwegianization process", many families of Sami or Kven ancestry now self-identify as ethnic Norwegian.[109] Sony VPCZ11X9E/B battery
Other groups recognized as national minorities of Norway are Jews, Forest Finns, and Norwegian Romani Travellers (a branch of the Romani people, not to be confused with non-recognized Indigenous Norwegian Travellers[110]). Sony VGP-BPS20 battery
14% of the Norwegian population are immigrants or children of two immigrant parents. About 6% of the immigrant population come from EU, North America and Australia, and about 8.1% come from Asia, Africa and Latin America.[111]
Migration[edit]
Norman Borlaug, a Norwegian American scientist, has been called the "father of the Green Revolution."
Emigration[edit]
Main article: Norwegian American
There are almost 4.7 million Norwegian Americans according to the 2006 U.S. census.[112] The number of Americans of Norwegian descent living in the U.S. today is roughly equal to the current population of Norway. In the 2006 Canadian census, 432,515 Canadian citizens claimed Norwegian ancestry.[113] Sony VGN-TT1RWN/X battery
Immigration[edit]
Main article: Immigration to Norway
On 1 January 2013 the number of immigrants or children of two immigrants residing in Norway was 710,465, or 14.1% of the total population,[111] up from 183,000 in 1992. Yearly immigration has increased rapidly since 2005. While yearly net immigration in 2001–5 was on average 13,613, it increased to 37,541 between 2006 and 2010, Sony VGN-TT11M/N battery
and in 2011 net immigration reached 47,032.[114] This is mostly because of increased immigration from the EU, in particular from Poland.[115]
In 2012, the immigrant community (which includes immigrants and Norwegian-born children of immigrant parents) grew by 55,300, a record high.[111] Net immigration from abroad reached 47,300 (300 higher than in 2011), Sony VGN-TT11RM/R battery
while immigration accounted for 72% of Norway's population growth.[116] 17% of newborn children were born to immigrant parents.[111] and those with Pakistani, Somali and Vietnamese parents made up the largest groups of all Norwegian-born to immigrant parents.[117] Sony VGN-TT11WN/B battery
Pakistani Norwegians are the largest non-European minority group in Norway, and most of their 32,700 members live around Oslo. The Iraqi and Somali immigrant populations have increased significantly in recent years. After the enlargement of the EU in 2004, there has also been an influx of immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe, Sony VGN-TT11XN/B battery
particularly Poland. The fastest growing immigrant groups in 2011 in absolute numbers were from Poland, Lithuania and Sweden.[118]
The policies of immigration and integration are subjected to much debate in Norway.
Largest immigrant groups (1st and 2nd generation):[119] Sony VGN-TT21VN/X battery
Most Norwegians are registered at baptism as members of the Church of Norway; many remain in the state church to be able to use services such as baptism, confirmation, marriage and burial, rites which have strong cultural standing in Norway. About 77% of Norwegians were members of the Church of Norway on 1 January 2012. Sony VGN-TT46GG/W battery
Sony VGN-Z51XTG/B battery About 66% of all newborns were baptized and about 65% of all 15-year-old persons were confirmed in the church in 2011.[120] However, only 20% of Norwegians say that religion occupies an important place in their life (according to a Gallup poll in 2009), the fourth-lowest such percentage in the world (only Estonia, Sweden and Denmark are lower).[1Sony VGN-TT46SG/W battery
Sony VGN-Z31XN/B battery21] In the early 1990s, it was estimated that between 4.7% and 5.3% of Norwegians attended church on a weekly basis.[122] This figure has dropped to about 2% – the lowest such percentage in Europe – according to data from 2009 and 2010[123][124]
Heddal stave church, Notodden, the largest stave church in Norway
There were, in October 2012, about 115,234 registered Catholics in Norway. It is estimated that total number of people with Catholic background may be 170,000–200,000 or higher.[125] Sony VGP-BPL14 battery
In 2010, 10% of the population was religiously unaffiliated, while another 9% (431 000 people), were members of religious and life stance communities outside the Church of Norway.[126] Other Christian denominations total about 4.9%[126] of the population, the largest of which is the Catholic Church, with 83,000 members.[1Sony VGP-BPL14/B battery
27] Others include Pentecostals (39,600),[127] the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Norway (19,600),[127] Methodists (11,000),[127] Baptists (9,900),[127] Orthodox (9,900)[127] Brunstad Christian Church (6,800),[127] Adventists (5,100),[127Sony VGP-BPS14 battery
Sony VGN-Z41WD/B battery] Assyrians and Chaldeans, and others. The Swedish, Finnish and Icelandic Lutheran congregations in Norway have about 27,500 members in total.[127] Other religions comprise less than 1% each, including 4,000 members in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and 12,000 Jehovah's Witnesses.[127] Sony VGP-BPS14/S battery
Among non-Christian religions, Islam is the largest with the population of 106,735.[128] It is practised mainly by Somali, Arab, Albanian, and Turkish immigrants, as well as Norwegians of Pakistani descent. Other religions comprise less than 1% each, including 819 adherents of Judaism.[12Sony VGN-Z11WN/B battery
Sony VGP-BPS12/Q battery9] Indian immigrants introduced Hinduism to Norway, which in 2011 has slightly more than 5,900 adherents, or 1% of non-Lutheran Norwegians.[129] Sikhism has approximately 3,000 adherents with most living in Oslo, with two Gurdwaras; Gurdwara Sri Guru Nanak Dev Ji and Gurdwara Sikh Sangat. Sony VGN-Z11XN/X battery
Sony VGP-BPS12 batterySikhs first came to Norway in the early 1970s. The troubles in Punjab after Operation Blue Star and the genocide of Sikhs after the assassination of Indira Gandhi led to an increase of Sikhs moving to Norway. Drammen also has a sizeable population of Sikhs with the largest Gurdwara in north Europe completed in Lier. Sony VGN-Z21 battery
Sony VGP-BPL12 batteryThere are eleven Buddhist organizations, grouped under the Buddhistforbundet organization, with slightly over 14,000 members,[129] which make up 0.2% of the population. The Baha'i religion has slightly more than 1,000 adherents.[129][1Sony VGN-Z21MN/B battery
Sony VGN-Z battery29] Around 1.7% (84,500) of Norwegians adhere to the secular Norwegian Humanist Association.
From 2006 to 2011, the fastest-growing religious faith in Norway was Orthodox Christianity, which grew in membership by 80.0%; however, its share of the total population remains small, at 0.20%.
Sony VGN-Z51XG battery One of the reasons is huge immigration from Eritrea and Ethiopia and to a lesser extent from Eastern European and Middle Eastern countries. Other fast-growing religions were the Roman Catholic Church (78.7%), Hinduism (59.6%), Islam (48.1%), and Buddhism (46.7%).[130] Sony VGN-Z21WN/B battery
Like other Scandinavian countries, the Norse followed a form of native Germanic paganism known as Norse paganism. By the end of the 11th century, when Norway had been Christianized, the indigenous Norse religion and practices were prohibited. Sony VGN-Z21XN battery
Sony VGN-Z51 batteryRemnants of the native religion and beliefs of Norway survive today in the form of names, referential names of cities and locations, the days of the week, and other parts of the everyday language. Modern interest in the old ways has led to a revival of the pagan religious practices in the form of Asatru. Sony VGN-Z21ZN/X battery
Sony VGN-Z31ZN/B battery The Norwegian Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost formed in 1996; in 2011, the fellowship had about 300 members. Foreningen Forn Sed formed in 1999 and has been recognized by the Norwegian government as a religious organization. Sony VGN-Z31 battery
The Sami minority retained their shamanistic religion well into the 18th century when most of them were converted to Christianity by Dano-Norwegian missionaries. Today there is an increasing interest in the Sami way of life, which has led to a revival of Noaidevuohta (Sami Shamanism).[131] Sony VGN-Z31VN/X battery
Sony VGN-Z31WN/B battery There are also reports of Norwegian and Sami celebrities visiting Shamans for guidance.[132][133] Although the majority of Sami people are Lutheran, there are some who managed to retain their ancient religion.[134] Sony PCG-41311M battery
According to the Eurobarometer Poll 2005, at that time 32% of Norwegian citizens responded that "they believe there is a god".[135] A study conducted three years previously by Gustafsson and Pettersson (2002), similarly found that 72% of Norwegians did not believe in a 'personal God.'[136]
The main building of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim
Higher education in Norway is offered by a range of seven universities, five specialized colleges, 25 university colleges as well as a range of private colleges. Sony PCG-41313M battery
Education follows the Bologna Process involving Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years) and PhD (3 years) degrees.[138] Acceptance is offered after finishing upper secondary school with general study competence. Sony PCG-41314M battery
Public education is virtually free, regardless of nationality,[139] with an academic year with two semesters, from August to December and from January to June. The ultimate responsibility for the education lies with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. Sony PCG-41315M battery
Languages[edit]
Main article: Languages of Norway
See also: Norwegian language and Sami languages
Distribution of Norwegian dialect groups: North Norwegian (yellow), Trøndelag Norwegian (navy blue), West Norwegian (orange) and East Norwegian (pale blue).
The North Germanic Norwegian language has two official written forms, Bokmål and Nynorsk. Both of them are recognized as official languages, in that they are both used in public administration, in schools, churches, Sony PCG-4R2M battery
Sony VPCZ12Z9E/X battery and media, and Bokmål is the written language used by the vast majority of about 80–85%. Around 95% of the population speak Norwegian as their native language, although many speak dialects that may differ significantly from the written language. All Norwegian dialects are inter-intelligible, Sony PCG-4R2M battery
Sony VPCZ12Z9E/B battery although listeners with very limited exposure to dialects other than their own may struggle to understand certain phrases and pronunciations in some other dialects. Several Uralic Sami languages are spoken and written throughout the country, especially in the north, by some members of the Sami people (Sony PCG-4U2M battery
Sony VPCZ12X9E/B battery estimates suggest about one third of Norwegian Sami speak a Sami language[140]). Speakers have a right to get education in Sami language no matter where they are living and to receive communication from the government in various Sami languages. The Kven minority historically spoke the Uralic Kven language Sony PCG-6Z4M battery
Sony VPCZ12V9E/B battery (considered a separate language in Norway, but generally perceived as a Finnish dialect in Finland), but the majority of Kvens today have little or no knowledge of the language. According to the Kainun institutti "The typical modern Kven is a Norwegian-speaking Norwegian who knows his genealogy".[14Sony PCG-6112M battery
Sony VPCZ12V9E battery1] There is advocacy for making Norwegian Sign Language an official Norwegian language.
In the 19th and 20th century, Norwegian language was subject to strong political and cultural controversy, which led to the creation of Nynorsk in the 19th century and to the formation of alternative spelling standards in the 20th century, notably the Riksmål standard, which is more conservative (that is, more similar to Danish) than Bokmål. Sony PCG-6121M battery
Norwegian is similar to the other languages in Scandinavia, Swedish and Danish. All three languages are mutually intelligible and can be, and commonly are, employed in communication between inhabitants of the Scandinavian countries. Sony PCG-6122M battery
Sony VPCZ12M9E batteryAs a result of the cooperation within the Nordic Council, inhabitants of all Nordic countries, including Iceland and Finland, have the right to communicate with the Norwegian authorities in their own language. Sony PCG-6123M battery
Any Norwegian student who is a child of immigrant parents is encouraged to learn the Norwegian language. The Norwegian government offers language instructional courses for immigrants wishing to obtain Norwegian citizenship. Sony VPCZ13 battery
Sony VPCZ12C7E/B battery From 1 September 2008, an applicant for Norwegian citizenship must also give evidence of proficiency in either the Norwegian or Sami language or give proof of having attended classes in Norwegian for 300 hours, or meet the language requirements for university studies in Norway (which is met by being proficient in one of the Scandinavian languages).
The main foreign language taught in Norwegian elementary school is English. The majority of the population are fluent in English, especially those born after World War II. German, French and Spanish are also commonly taught as a second or, more often, third language. Russian, Japanese, Italian, Latin, and rarely Chinese (Mandarin) Sony VPCZ13M9E/B battery
Sony VPCZ11Z9E batteryare available in some schools, mostly in the cities. Traditionally, English, German and French were considered the main foreign languages in Norway. These languages, for instance, had been used on Norwegian passports until the 1990s, and university students have a general right to use these languages when submitting their theses. Sony VPCZ13V9E battery
Culture[edit]
Main article: Culture of Norway
Traditional Norwegian farmer's costumes, known as folkedrakt, and modern costumes inspired by those costumes, known as bunad, are widely used on special occasions.
The Norwegian farm culture continues to play a role in contemporary Norwegian culture. In the 18th century, it brought about a strong romantic nationalistic movement, Sony VPCZ13Z9E/X battery
Sony VPCZ11X9E battery which is still visible in the Norwegian language and media. In the 19th century, Norwegian culture blossomed as efforts continued to achieve an independent identity in the areas of literature, art and music. This continues today in the performing arts and as a result of government support for exhibitions, cultural projects and artwork.[1Sony VPCZ21Q9E battery
Norway has been, in many regards, an early adopter of women's rights, minority rights, and LGBT rights. As early as 1884, 171 of the leading personalities of the day, among them five Prime Ministers for the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, Sony VPCZ23K9E battery
Sony VGP-BPS20/S batteryco-founded the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights,[143] and they successfully campaigned for women's right to education, women's suffrage, the right to work and other gender equality policies. From the 1970s, Sony VGP-BPL20 battery
Sony VGP-BPS20/B batterygender equality also came high on the state agenda with the establishment of a public body to promote gender equality.
In 1990 Norway was the first country to recognize the ILO-convention 169 on indigenous people. In regard to LGBT rights, Norway was the first country in the world to enact an anti-discrimination law protecting the rights of gays and lesbians. Sony VGP-BPL20 battery
Sony VGP-BPS20/B batteryIn 1993 Norway became the second country to legalize civil union partnerships for same-sex couples, and on 1 January 2009 Norway became the sixth country to grant full marriage equality to same-sex couples. Sony VGP-BPL14 battery
Only in 1990 was the Norwegian constitution altered to grant absolute primogeniture to the Norwegian throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession.
Sony VGN-Z51XG/B battery This was not done retroactively, meaning that even now the current successor to the throne is not the eldest child to the King, but the eldest son. The Norwegian constitution Article 6 states that "For those born before the year 1990 it shall...be the case that a male shall take precedence over a female."[144] Sony VGP-BPL14/B battery
An ardent promoter of human rights, Norway is home to the annual Oslo Freedom Forum conference, a gathering described by The Economist as "on its way to becoming a human-rights equivalent of the Davos economic forum."[145] Sony VGP-BPL14/S battery
Separation of church and state happened significantly later in Norway than in most of Europe and is not yet complete. It was recently furthered in 2012 when the Norwegian parliament voted to grant the Church of Norway greater autonomy,[14Sony VGP-BPS14 battery
Sony VGN-Z51XTG/B battery6] a decision which was confirmed in a constitutional amendment on 21 May 2012. Until 2012 parliamentary officials were required to be members of the Lutheran Church and at least half of all ministers had to be a member of the Christian State Church. Nevertheless, Sony VGP-BPS14/B battery
Sony VGN-Z31XN/B batterythe Church of Norway remains the state's church and even after the changes all clergy remain state employees and the central and regional church administrations remain a part of the state administration. The members of the Royal family also must remain members of the Lutheran church. Sony VGP-BPS14/S battery
Cinema[edit]
Main article: Cinema of Norway
Not until fairly recently has the Norwegian cinema received international recognition, but as early as 1951 a documentary film of the Kon-Tiki expedition won an Oscar Academy Award. In 1959, Arne Skouen's Nine Lives was nominated, but failed to win. Another notable film is Flåklypa Grand Prix (English: Pinchcliffe Grand Prix), Sony VGN-Z11MN/B battery
Sony VGP-BPS12/Q batteryan animated feature film directed by Ivo Caprino. The film was released in 1975 and is based on characters from Norwegian cartoonist Kjell Aukrust. It is the most widely seen Norwegian film of all time. Sony VGN-Z11WN/B battery
There was however a breakthrough in 1987 with Nils Gaup's Pathfinder which told the story of the Sami. It was nominated for an Oscar and was an international success[citation needed]. Berit Nesheim's The Other Side of Sunday was also nominated for an Oscar in 1997. Sony VGN-Z11XN/X battery
Since the 1990s, the film industry has thrived with up to 20 feature films each year. Particular successes were Kristin Lavransdatter, The Telegraphist and Gurin with the Foxtail. Knut Erik Jensen was among the more successful new directors together with Erik Skjoldbjærg, who is remembered for Insomnia.[147] Sony VGN-Z21 battery
In late 2008, the film Max Manus opened at Norwegian theatres. The film was a World War II drama, telling the story of Max Manus, a Norwegian resistance hero who led many successful sabotage operations against the German occupation. The film became the highest grossing Norwegian film ever. Sony VGN-Z21WN/B battery
Other notable successful Norwegian films include Orion's Belt, Cold Prey, Cold Prey 2, Cold Prey 3 and The Troll Hunter.
The country has also been used as filming location for several Hollywood and other international productions, including the 1980 film Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back, for which the producers used Hardangerjøkulen glacier as a filming location for scenes of the ice planet Hoth,
Sony VGP-BPL12 batterywhich included a memorable battle in the snow. Other films include scenes from the James Bond film Die Another Day, The Golden Compass, Spies Like Us and Heroes of Telemark as well as the TV series Lilyhammer.[148] Sony VGN-Z21ZN/X battery
Music[edit]
Main article: Music of Norway
Edvard Grieg, composer and pianist
Along with the classical music of the romantic composers Edvard Grieg, Rikard Nordraak and Johan Svendsen, and the modern music of Arne Nordheim, Norwegian black metal has become something of an export article in recent years. Sony VGN-Z31MN/B battery
Norway's classical performers include Leif Ove Andsnes, one of the world's more famous pianists, Truls Mørk, an outstanding cellist, and the great Wagnerian soprano Kirsten Flagstad.
Since the 1990s, Norway's biggest cultural export has been black metal. This lo-fi, dark and raw form of heavy metal exploded in Norway during the 1990s and launched the careers of bands such as Darkthrone, Mayhem, Burzum, Emperor, Sony VGN-Z31VN/X battery
Sony VGN-Z51WG battery Gorgoroth and Immortal, as well as later bands such as Dimmu Borgir. This development has since become an important part of extreme metal, but many events that took place in the early 1990s related to the black metal movement, such as several church burnings and a prominent murder case, Sony VGN-Z31WN/B battery
Sony VGN-Z51 battery which caused some concern among the Norwegian citizens at large.
The jazz scene in Norway is also thriving. Jan Garbarek, Terje Rypdal, Mari Boine, Arild Andersen, and Bugge Wesseltoft are internationally recognized while Paal Nilssen-Love, Supersilent, Jaga Jazzist and Wibutee are becoming world-class artists of the younger generation.[149] Sony VGN-Z31ZN/B battery
Hardingfele, a fiddle from Norway
Norway has a strong folk music tradition which remains popular to this day.[150] Among the most prominent folk musicians are Hardanger fiddlers Andrea Een, Olav Jørgen Hegge and Annbjørg Lien, and the vocalists Agnes Buen Garnås, Kirsten Bråten Berg and Odd Nordstoga.[151] Sony SVE1511H1ESI battery
Other internationally recognized bands are A-ha and Röyksopp. A-ha initially rose to global fame during the mid-1980s. In the 1990s and 2000s the group maintained its popularity domestically, and had some success outside Norway, mainly in Germany and Switzerland. Sony SVE17 battery
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In recent years, various Norwegian songwriters and production teams have contributed to the music of other international artists. Most notably the Norwegian production team Stargate (production team) has produced songs for Rihanna, Beyoncé Knowles, Shakira, Jennifer Lopez and Lionel Richie among others. Sony VPCCA1S1E battery
Sony SVE1511H1EW battery Espen Lind has written and produced songs for Beyoncé Knowles, Lionel Richie, Ne-Yo, Chris Brown, Jessica Simpson and Leona Lewis. Lene Marlin has written songs for Rihanna and LovebugsSony VPCCA2 battery
Norway enjoys many music festivals throughout the year, all over the country. Norway is the host of one of the world's biggest extreme sport festivals with music, Ekstremsportveko – a festival held annually in Voss. Oslo is the host of many festivals, Sony VPCCA2S0E battery
Sony SVE1511S1EB battery such as Øyafestivalen and by:Larm. Oslo used to have a summer parade similar to the German Love Parade. In 1992 the city of Oslo wanted to adopt the French music festival "Fête de la Musique". Fredrik Carl Størmer established the festival. Even in its first year, "Musikkens Dag" gathered thousands of people and artists in the streets of Oslo. "Musikkens Dag" is now renamed "Musikkfest Oslo".Sony VPCCA2Z0E battery
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Literature[edit]
Main article: Norwegian literature
See also: List of Norwegian writers
Knut Hamsun
History of Norwegian literature starts with the pagan Eddaic poems and skaldic verse of the 9th and 10th centuries with poets such as Bragi Boddason and Eyvindr skáldaspillir. The arrival of Christianity around the year 1000 brought Norway into contact with European mediaeval learning, hagiography and history writing. Sony VPCCB2 battery
Sony SVE1511S1EW batteryMerged with native oral tradition and Icelandic influence this was to flower into an active period of literature production in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Major works of that period include Historia Norwegiæ, Þiðrekssaga and Konungs skuggsjá.
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Little Norwegian literature came out of the period of the Scandinavian Union and the subsequent Dano-Norwegian union (1387–1814), with some notable exceptions such as Petter Dass and Ludvig Holberg. In his play Peer Gynt, Sony VPCCB2M0E battery
Sony SVE1511G1ESI batteryIbsen characterized this period as "Twice two hundred years of darkness/brooded o'er the race of monkeys", although the latter line is not as frequently quoted as the former. During the union with Denmark, written Norwegian was replaced by Danish.
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Henrik Ibsen
Two major events precipitated a major resurgence in Norwegian literature. In 1811 a Norwegian university was established in Christiania. Seized by the spirit of revolution following the American and French Revolutions, the Norwegians signed their first Constitution in 1814. Sony VPCCB2M1E battery
Soon, the cultural backwater that was Norway brought forth a series of strong authors recognized first in Scandinavia, and then worldwide; among them were Henrik Wergeland, Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, Jørgen Moe and Camilla Collett. Sony VPCCB2S1E battery
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By the late 19th century, in the Golden Age of Norwegian literature, the so-called Great Four emerged: Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Alexander Kielland, and Jonas Lie. Bjørnson's "peasant novels", such as "En glad gutt" (A Happy Boy) VPCCB3P1E battery
Sony SVE1711X1EB batteryand "Synnøve Solbakken" are typical of the national romanticism of their day, whereas Kielland's novels and short stories are mostly realistic. Although an important contributor to early Norwegian romantic nationalism (especially the ironic Peer Gynt),
Sony SVE1711V1EB batteryHenrik Ibsen's fame rests primarily on his pioneering realistic dramas such The Wild Duck and A Doll's House, many of which caused moral uproar because of their candid portrayals of the middle classes. Sony VPCCB4X1E battery
In the 20th century, three Norwegian novelists were awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1903, Knut Hamsun for the book "Markens grøde" ("Growth of the Soil") in 1920, and Sigrid Undset in 1928. Further important contributions to Norwegian literature were made by writers like Dag Solstad, Jon Fosse, Sony VPCCA3E1E battery
Sony SVE1711K1EW battery Cora Sandel, Olav Duun, Olav H. Hauge, Gunvor Hofmo, Stein Mehren, Kjell Askildsen, Hans Herbjørnsrud, Aksel Sandemose, Bergljot Hobæk Haff, Jostein Gaarder, Erik Fosnes Hansen, Jens Bjørneboe, Kjartan Fløgstad, Lars Saabye Christensen, Johan Borgen, Herbjørg Wassmo, Jan Erik Vold, Rolf Jacobsen, Olaf Bull, Jan Kjærstad, Georg Johannesen, Tarjei Vesaas, Sigurd Hoel, Arnulf Øverland and Johan Falkberget. Sony SVE171A11M battery
Research[edit]
Ragnar Frisch, winner of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
Internationally recognized Norwegian scientists include the mathematician Niels Henrik Abel, for whom the Abel Prize has been named. Ludvig Holberg was noted not only as a writer, but also as a philosopher, historian and legal theorist. Sony SVE151C11M battery
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In the 20th century, Norwegian academics have been pioneering in many social sciences, including criminology, sociology and peace and conflict studies. Prominent academics include Arne Næss, a philosopher and founder of deep ecology; Johan Galtung, the founder of peace studies; Nils Christie and Thomas Mathiesen, criminologists; Fredrik Barth, a social anthropologist; Vilhelm Aubert, Harriet Holter and Erik Grønseth, Sony VPCSE2E1E battery
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sociologists; Tove Stang Dahl, a pioneer of women's law; Stein Rokkan, a political scientist; and Ragnar Frisch, an economist.
Architecture[edit]
Main article: Architecture of Norway
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Urnes Stave Church has been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site
Norway has always had a tradition of building in wood. Indeed, many of today's most interesting new buildings are made of wood, reflecting the strong appeal that this material continues to hold for Norwegian designers and builders.[152] Sony vgp-bpsc24 battery
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Norway's conversion to Christianity some 1,000 years ago led to the introduction of stonework architecture, beginning with the construction of Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim.
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The small town of Røros has small streets and old houses.
In the early Middle Ages, stave churches were constructed throughout Norway. Many of them remain to this day and represent Norway's most important contribution to architectural history. A fine example is Urnes Stave Church, which is now on UNESCO's World Heritage List. Sony SVS15 battery
Sony PCG-41414M battery Another notable example of wooden architecture is the Bryggen Wharf in Bergen, consisting of a row of narrow wooden structures along the quayside.
In the 17th century, under the Danish monarchy, cities such as Kongsberg with its Baroque church and Røros with its wooden buildings were established. Sony VPCSA2Z9E battery
After Norway's union with Denmark was dissolved in 1814, Oslo became the capital. The architect Christian H. Grosch designed the oldest parts of the University of Oslo, the Oslo Stock Exchange, and many other buildings and churches. Sony SVS13AA11M battery
At the beginning of the 20th century, the city of Ålesund was rebuilt in the Art Nouveau style. The 1930s, when functionalism dominated, became a strong period for Norwegian architecture, but it is only in recent decades that Norwegian architects have truly achieved international renown.
Sony PCG-41211M batteryOne of the most striking modern buildings in Norway is the Sami Parliament in Kárášjohka designed by Stein Halvorson and Christian Sundby. Its debating chamber is an abstract timber version of a Lavvo, the traditional tent used by the nomadic Sami people.[153]
Art[edit] Sony SVS131B12M battery
Main article: Norwegian art
For an extended period, the Norwegian art scene was dominated by artwork from Germany and Holland as well as by the influence of Copenhagen. It was in the 19th century that a truly Norwegian era began, first with portraits, later with even more impressive landscapes. Johan Christian Dahl (1788–1857), Sony SVS151A11M battery
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originally from the Dresden school, eventually returned to paint the landscapes of western Norway, defining Norwegian painting for the first time."[154]
Brudeferd i Hardanger by Adolph Tidemand og Hans Gude, 1848
Norway's newly found independence from Denmark encouraged painters to develop their Norwegian identity, especially with landscape painting by artists such as Kitty Kielland, a female painter who studied under Hans Gude; Sony SVS1311E3EW battery
Harriet Backer, 1845–1932, another pioneer among female artists, influenced by impressionism. Frits Thaulow, an impressionist, was influenced by the art scene in Paris as was Christian Krohg, a realist painter, famous for his paintings of prostitutes.[155] Sony SVS1311P9EB battery
Of particular note is Edvard Munch, a symbolist/expressionist painter who became world famous for The Scream which is said to represent the anxiety of modern man.
Other artists of note include Harald Sohlberg, a neo-romantic painter remembered for his paintings of Røros, and Odd Nerdrum, a figurative painter who maintains that his work is not art but kitsch. Sony SVS1511L3ES battery